Fauna of Scotland

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The fauna of Scotland is generally typical of the north west European part of the Palearctic ecozone, although several of the larger mammals were hunted to extinction in historic times. There are a diversity of temperate ecologies and today there are 62 species of mammal living wild in and around Scotland, including a population of Wild Cats and important numbers of Grey and Harbour Seals.^[1][2]

There are diverse populations of moorland birds including Blackcock and the Red Grouse, and internationally significant nesting grounds for a variety of seabirds such as Northern Gannets.^[3] The Golden Eagle is something of a national icon,^[4] and White-tailed Eagles and Ospreys are recent re-colonisations. The Scottish Crossbill is the only endemic vertebrate species in the British Isles.^[5]

Of the 42 species of fish found in Scottish fresh waters, only half have arrived by natural colonisation, although there are nearly 400 genetically distinct populations of Atlantic Salmon in Scottish rivers.^[6] It is estimated that the total number of Scottish marine species exceeds 40,000,^[7] and the Darwin Mounds are an important area of cold water coral reefs discovered in 1988.

There are only six amphibians and four land reptiles native to Scotland, but numerous species of invertebrate that are otherwise rare in the United Kingdom.^[8] There are a variety of active conservation agencies but climate change, especially the potential effects on mountain plateaux and marine life, is of growing concern to naturalists.^[9]

Contents 1 Habitats 2 Mammals 2.1 Carnivores 2.2 Rodents, Insectivores and Lagomorphs 2.3 Artiodactyls 2.4 Other mammals 2.5 Extinctions 2.6 Possible re-introductions 3 Avifauna 3.1 Raptors 3.2 Seabirds 3.3 Game birds, waders and water fowl 3.4 Other non-passerines 3.5 Passerines 3.6 Vagrants 3.7 Extinctions 4 Fish and sea life 4.1 Extinctions 5 Amphibians and land reptiles 6 Terrestrial invertebrates 7 Cryptozoology 8 Nature conservation in Scotland 8.1 Challenges 8.2 Conservation organisations 9 See also 10 Notes 10.1 General references 11 External links

[edit] Habitats

Scotland enjoys a diversity of temperate ecologies, incorporating both deciduous and coniferous woodlands, and moorland, montane, estuarine, freshwater, oceanic, and tundra landscapes.^[10] Approximately 14% of Scotland is wooded, much of it forestry plantations, but prior to human clearing this would have included much larger areas of boreal Caledonian and broad-leaved forest.^[11] Although much reduced, significant remnants of the native Scots Pine woodlands, can be found in places.^[12] 17% of Scotland is covered by heather moorland and peatland. Caithness and Sutherland have one of the largest and most intact areas of blanket bog in the world, supporting a distinctive wildlife community.^[13][14] 75% of Scotland's land is classed as agricultural (including some moorland) with urban areas accounting for around 3% of the total. The coastline is 11,803 km (7,334 miles) in length, and the number of islands with terrestrial vegetation is nearly 800, about 600 of them lying off the west coast. Scotland has more than 90% of the volume and 70% of the total surface area of fresh water in the United Kingdom. There are more than 30,000 fresh water lochs and 6,600 river systems.^[10]

Under the auspices of the European Unions Habitats Directive, as at 31 March 2003 a total of 230 sites in Scotland covering an area of 8748.08 km² (3,378 square miles) had been submitted by the UK government to the European Commission as candidate Special Areas of Conservation (cSAC).^[15] Scotland’s seas are among the most biologically productive in the world and contain 40,000 or more different species. 24 of the cSACs are marine sites, and a further nine are coastal with both marine and non-marine elements.^[16] In total they extend to an area of around 350 km², (135 square miles). The UK government is currently considering designating an area known as the Darwin Mounds, covering approximately 100 km² (38.6 square miles), as the first offshore cSAC.^[15]

[edit] Mammals

Scotland was entirely^[17] covered in ice during the Pleistocene glaciations. As the post-glacial weather warmed, mammals migrated through the landscape, although mainland Britain has only two-thirds of the species that reached Scandinavia, and the Hebridean islands off Scotland's west coast, only half those of Britain.^[18] There are 62 species of mammal living wild in and around Scotland including 13 species found in coastal waters.^[2] The populations of a third of the land mammal species are thought to be in decline due to a variety of factors including environmental pollution, habitat fragmentation, changes in agricultural practices (particularly overgrazing) and competition from introduced species.^[19] There are no endemic mammal species although the St. Kilda Field Mouse Apodemus sylvaticus hirtensi is an endemic subspecies of the Wood Mouse which reaches twice the size of its mainland cousins,^[4] and the Orkney Vole or Cuttick, Microtus arvalis orcadensis found only in the Orkney archipelago, is a sub-species of the Common Vole. It may have been introduced by early settlers circa 4,000 years ago.^[20]

[edit] Carnivores

The family Mustelidae's representation in Scotland is typical of Britain as a whole save that the Polecat is absent and Scotland is the UK's stronghold of the Pine Marten,^[21] although the purity of the latter breed is threatened by a release of American Martens in northern England.^[4] Scotland hosts the only populations of European Wild Cat in the British Isles with an assumed total of between 400 and 2,000 animals,^[22] and of the fox sub-species Vulpes vulpes vulpes, a larger race than the more common V. v. crucigera and which has two distinct forms.^[1] The Wild Cat is at risk due to the inadequacy of protective legislation,^[4] and is now considered at serious risk of extinction.^[23]

Amongst the seals only the Phocidae, or earless seals, are represented other than as occasional vagrants. Two species, the Grey Seal and Harbour or Common Seal are present around the coast of Scotland in internationally important numbers. In 2002 the Scottish Grey Seal population was estimated at 120,600 adult animals, which is around 36% of the world population and over 90% of the UK's. The Scottish population of the Common Seal is 29,700, about 90% of the UK and 36% of the European total.^[24]

[edit] Rodents, Insectivores and Lagomorphs

75% of the UK's Red Squirrels are found in Scotland. This species is facing a number of threats, including competition from the introduced Grey Squirrel and the 'Scottish Strategy for Red Squirrel Conservation' provides a framework for supporting its long-term conservation.^[25] Research in 2007 credits the growing population of Pine Martens with assisting this programme by predating selectively on the Grey Squirrels.^[26] Scotland has no population of the Edible or Hazel Dormouse, or of the Yellow-necked Mouse, and the Harvest Mouse's range is limited to the southern part of the country. The St Kilda Mouse and Orkney Vole (see above) are endemic, but otherwise population distributions are similar to the rest of mainland Britain.^[21] Colonies of Black Rats remain only on the island of Inchcolm in the Firth of Forth and on the Shiant Isles.^[27]

Mainland insectivore populations are generally as for the rest of Britain. Recent steps by Scottish Natural Heritage, the Scottish Executive and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds to remove European Hedgehogs from the Outer Hebrides,^[28] where their introduction has caused declines in internationally important breeding populations of waders such as Dunlin, Ringed Plover and Redshank has caused considerable controversy and culls were halted in 2007.^[29][30] The trapped animals are now relocated to the mainland, the success of the programme resulting in only 2 individuals being caught in 2007.^[31]

The Mountain Hare is the only native member of the family, and is the dominant species throughout most of upland Scotland. The European Hare and European Rabbit are both present, the latter having been brought to Britain by the Romans^[32] but not becoming widespread in Scotland until the 19th century.^[33]

[edit] Artiodactyls

Landseer's painting of a Red Deer stag, Monarch of the Glen, is one of the most notable images of Victorian Scotland.^[34] The species is still 40,000 strong, although its existence in the pure form is threatened by hybridisation with introduced Sika Deer. Very much a hill-dwelling species in Scotland (and so typically smaller in stature than its European forest-loving cousins), it is generally replaced by Roe Deer in lower-lying land.^[4] Scotland has no wild populations of Chinese Water Deer and no or very few Chinese Muntjac. There are also various isolated populations of feral goats Capra hircus and feral sheep (Ovis aries),^[19] such as the herd of 1,000 feral Soay Sheep on St Kilda.^[35] Since 1952 a herd of semi-domesticated Reindeer have lived in the Cairngorm National Park,^[4] the species having become extinct in Scotland at some point after it was recorded as having been hunted in Orkney in the 12th century.^[36]

[edit] Other mammals

Only nine of the sixteen or seventeen bat species found elsewhere in Britain are present in Scotland. Widespread species are Common and Soprano Pipistrelles, the Brown Long-eared Bat, Daubenton's Bat and Natterer's Bat. Those with a more restricted distribution are the Whiskered Bat, Noctule, Leisler's Bat and Nathusius Pipistrelle. Absences include the Greater and Lesser Horseshoe Bat, the Greater Mouse-eared Bat and Bechstein's Bat.^[37] There are no resident bats on the Shetland islands; the only records there are of migrants or vagrants.^[38]

Twenty-one species of cetacean have been recorded in Scottish waters within the last 100 years including Cuvier's Beaked Whale, Killer Whales, Sperm Whales, Minke Whales and Common, White-beaked and Risso’s Dolphins.^[39] The Moray Firth colony of c. 100 Bottlenose Dolphins^[40] is the most northerly in the world. As recent dramatic television coverage indicated,^[41] this species predates on Harbour Porpoises with a third of carcasses examined by pathologists from 1992-2002 indicating that death was as a result of dolphin attacks.^[4] However, conservationists are dismayed that the UK government has decided to allow allow oil and gas prospecting in the Moray Firth, putting these precarious populations of cetaceans at risk.^[42] The introduced marsupial, the Red-necked Wallaby, is confined to a colony on an island in Loch Lomond.^[43]

[edit] Extinctions

During the Pleistocene interglacials various arctic animals that are no longer extant occupied Scotland, including the Woolly Rhinoceros, Mammoth, Polar Bear, lemming,^[18] Arctic Fox and the giant deer Megaloceros giganteus.^[33] Other mammals which used to inhabit Scotland, but which became extinct in the wild during historic times include the Eurasian Lynx, which lived in Britain until 1,500 years ago,^[36] the European Brown Bear, sub-species Ursus arctos caledoniensis, which was taken to entertain the Roman circuses^[18] but died out in the 9th or 10th century, and the Elk which lasted until circa 1300. The Wild Boar and Wild Ox or Urus died out in the subsequent two centuries although the former's domesticated cousin, the grice lasted until 1930 in Shetland.^[44] The last Wolf was shot on Mackintosh land in Invernessshire in 1743,^[3][45] and the Walrus is now only an occasional vagrant.^[21] St Kilda also possessed an endemic sub-species of the House Mouse Mus musculus muralis, which was longer, hairier, coloured differently and had a skull shape skull at variance to the norm. It became extinct in 1938, just eight years after the evacuation of the native St Kildans.^[46]

[edit] Possible re-introductions

Scottish Natural Heritage plan to bring the European Beaver back to Scotland using Norwegian stock. The species was found in the Highlands until the 15th century, but the Scottish Executive have so far rejected the idea.^[36][3] Various other schemes have been considered. For example, the owner of the Alladale estate north of Inverness has expressed a desire to re-introduce wolves as part of a safari park.^[36]

[edit] Avifauna

The history of mammals suggests three broad overlapping phases - post ice age colonisation by natural means, extinctions caused by the advent of humans, and then a period of introductions of non-native species.^[33] The greater mobility of birds makes such generalisations hard to substantiate. There is no doubt that modern humans have done great damage to various species, especially the raptors, but it is also clear that natural variations in populations are complex and ongoing. For example, Northern Fulmars were present at Skara Brae during the Neolithic period, but in medieval times their breeding range was entirely restricted to St Kilda.^[33] Since then they have spread throughout the British Isles.^[5][47]

There are about 250 species of bird regularly recorded in Britain, most of which venture into Scotland, and perhaps up to 300 more that occur with varying degrees of rarity. A total of 247 species have been assessed and each placed onto one of three lists – red, amber or green - indicating the level of concern for their future. Forty species are red-listed, 121 are amber-listed and 86 are green-listed.^[48][49]

The Scottish Crossbill Loxia scotica, which inhabits the coniferous forests of the Highlands is Britain's only endemic bird and with only 300 breeding pairs, one of Europe's most threatened species.^[4] Its shape, red/green hue and habit of hanging upside down has led to comparisons with parrots.^[8] St Kilda has a unique subspecies of wren, Troglodytes troglodytes hirtensis, which has adapted to perch on the rocks and cliffs of this treeless Atlantic island, and consequently has developed larger and stronger feet than the mainland variant. It is also slightly larger, has a longer beak, a drabber though more varied colouring, and a "peculiarly sweet and soft" song. The sub-species was recognised in 1884 and had to be protected by a special act of parliament in 1904 to prevent its destruction "at the hands of ornithologists, egg-collectors, taxidermists and tourists".^[46]

[edit] Raptors

All but a few pairs of Britain's approximately 600 Golden Eagles are found in Scotland, and the majority of the breeding Peregrine Falcons.^[50] The Hobby, Marsh Harrier and Montagu's Harrier are generally absent.^[5]

In 1916 an English vicar stole the last native White-tailed Sea Eagle eggs on Skye^[51] and the last adult was shot on Shetland two years later. However, the species was re-introduced to the island of Rùm in 1975. The bird spread successfully to various neighbouring islands and by 2006 there were 30 pairs established. Despite fears expressed by local farmers, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) plan to release up to 100 young eagles on the east coast in the Forth and Tay estuaries.^[36][52] The Red Kite was exterminated in Scotland in 1879 and a re-introduction programme was launched by the RSPB in the 1980s. Although the species has made significant advances it is estimated that 38% of the 395 birds fledged between 1999 and 2003 were poisoned and a further 9% shot or otherwise killed by humans. The RSPB stated: "it may take a custodial sentence before people engaged with this activity begin to take the matter seriously".^[53]

After an absence of nearly 40 years the Osprey successfully re-colonised Scotland at in the early 1950s. In 1899 they had bred at the ruined Loch an Eilean castle near Aviemore and at Loch Arkaig until 1908. In 1952 they claimed a new site at Loch Garten.^[3] There are now 150 breeding pairs.^[4]

Other raptor species found in the UK such as the Kestrel, Hen Harrier, Goshawk, Sparrowhawk, Tawny Owl, and Barn Owl are widely distributed in Scotland, although the Little Owl is confined to the south.^[50][5] Buzzards have displayed a remarkable resilience, having recovered from human persecution and the myxamatosis epidemic of the 1950s, which reduced their food supply. Numbers more than trebled between 1978 and 1998.^[4] At the other end of the population scale, a single pair of Snowy Owls bred on Fetlar from 1967-75.^[51]

[edit] Seabirds

Scotland’s seas host almost half of the EU’s breeding seabirds^[7] including about half of the world’s Northern Gannets and a third of the world’s Manx Shearwaters. Four sea bird species have more than 95% of their combined British and Irish population in Scotland, while a further fourteen species have more than half of their breeding population in Scottish colonies.^[15]

60% of all breeding Bonxies nest in Scotland, mostly in Orkney and Shetland. This may be surprising given that they did not arrive at all until the 18th century. Scotland is the breeding station for about 90% of the UK’s Arctic Terns, the majority making use of colonies in Orkney and Shetland, and a similar percentage the UK's Tysties, which breed on various islands including Unst, Mingulay and Iona.^[4] Scotland also hosts 1,000 pairs of Arctic Skua and 21,000 breeding pairs of Shag, 40% of the global population of the species.^[54]

In excess of 130,000 birds inhabit Fowlsheugh nature reserve in Aberdeenshire at the peak of the breeding season, making it one of the largest seabird colonies in Britain. As of 2005 about 18,000 breeding pairs of Kittiwakes return to each year, and there are also significant numbers of Atlantic Puffin, Razorbill, Fulmar, Herring Gull and Great Black-backed Gull.^[55] The Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth hosts upwards of 40,000 pairs of Northern Gannets and is the largest single rock gannetry in the world. The bird's scientific name Morus bassanus, derives from the rock.^[56][57]

[edit] Game birds, waders and water fowl

Red listed Western Capercaillie and Ptarmigan breed in Scotland and are absent elsewhere in the British Isles. There are significant populations of other Galliformes including Blackcock and the famous Red Grouse. Common Quail, Grey Partridge and Pheasant are well distributed, although the Red-legged Partridge less so. There is a small colony of the introduced Golden Pheasant but Lady Amherst's is absent.

Amongst the waders, Avocet, Stone-curlew, Little Ringed Plover and Kentish Plover are absent, but most of the 100 or so pairs of Dotterel in the UK summer in Scotland as do all of the breeding Whimbrel, Greenshank and Red-necked Phalarope, (although the latter two species also breed in Ireland).^[5][47] Goldeneye have colonised an area centred around the Cairngorms National Park since the 1970s and about 100 pairs now breed there. The majority of the c. 8,000 Whooper Swans in the British Isles winter in Scotland and Ireland.^[4][5]

Virtually all of the 40,000 Barnacle Geese which breed in Greenland arrive on Islay for the winter, most staying only for a few days before dispersing to the surrounding area. A similar number used the Montrose Basin as a temporary roost in October, and 20% of the world population of 225,000 birds over-winter on Scottish lochs.^[4] The amber listed Black and Red-throated Diver's freshwater breeding strongholds in the British Isles are in the north and west of Scotland.^[58]

[edit] Other non-passerines

Considerable efforts have been taken to conserve the shy Corncrake and summer numbers of this red listed species have recovered to 670 pairs.^[4] The Wryneck is also red listed and numbers fewer than 2-10 breeding pairs in Scotland.^[59] Of the Columbidae the Turtle Dove is largely absent, but in the British Isles the Rock Dove is confined to the north and west coasts of Scotland and Ireland.^[5]

[edit] Passerines

Ravens are typically forest dwelling birds in much of Europe, but in Scotland they are generally associated with mountains and sea coasts. In 2002 the Hooded Crow was recognised as a separate species to the Carrion Crow. Scotland and Northern Ireland host all of the 190,000 UK territories of the former.^[60] A recent survey suggest that Raven numbers are increasing but that Hooded Crows had declined by 59% whilst Carrion Crow numbers were essentially static.^[61] 340 pairs of Chough nest in Scotland, concentrated on the islands of Islay and Colonsay.^[4]

In addition to Crossbills (see above), Crested Tits exist as a fragmented population of 2,400 breeding pairs in remnant patches of Caledonian Forest and in some larger plantations such as the Culbin Forest in Moray. Ring Ouzels have declined to around 7,000 pairs, possibly due to disturbance from the growing number of human visitors to their upland habitat. There are fewer than 100 breeding pairs of Snow Bunting, although in winter they are joined by migrants from continental Europe. A nest site near Dumfries is though to have been in use by Dippers since 1881. Scotland has 95% of the British breeding population of red listed Twite, about 64,000 pairs.^[4] However, a recent RSPB survey found a sudden and dramatic fall in winter numbers from 6,000 in 1998 to only 300 in 2006 in the counties of Caithness and Sutherland.^[62]

[edit] Vagrants

Scotland's position on the western seaboard of Europe means that a variety of birds not normally found in the country visit from time to time. These include accidental visits by vagrant birds which have wandered far from their normal habitations.

Fair Isle is an internationally renowned site for the observation of migrant birds. Rarities have included passerines such as the Thick-billed Warbler, White-throated Sparrow, Yellow-rumped Warbler and Collared Flycatcher.^[63] Over 345 species of bird have been recorded on this island,^[64] which measures only 7.68 km² (3 m²).^[65]

Elsewhere, other rarities reported in 2006 include a White-billed Diver at Gairloch, a Black-browed Albatross in the Western Isles, a Laughing Gull in Shetland and a Buff-breasted Sandpiper at Lossiemouth.^[66]

Accidentals recorded in earlier years include an American Bittern in 1888 and a Purple Heron in the same year, a Baikal Teal in 1958, and a Black stork in 1977. There are also birds which are presumed to have escaped, such as a Lanner Falcon in 1976, Chilean Flamingos in 1976 and 1979, a Black-necked Swan in 1988, and a Red-tailed Hawk in 1989. These records are but a small selection from two counties in the north-east and give only a flavour of the complexity and diversity of avian life in Scotland.^[67]

[edit] Extinctions

The Common Crane and Great Bittern were exterminated by hunters and the draining of marshes in the 18th century.^[3] The last Great Auk seen in Britain was killed on Stac an Armin, a rocky pinnacle in the St Kilda archipelago in July 1840.^[65]

[edit] Fish and sea life

Of the 42 species of fish found in Scottish fresh waters, only half have arrived by natural colonisation. Native species include Allis Shad, Brown Trout, European Eel, River Lamprey and Vendace. Scottish rivers support one of the largest Atlantic Salmon resources in Europe, with nearly 400 rivers supporting genetically distinct populations.^[6] Five fish species are considered ‘late arrivals’ to Scotland having colonised by natural means prior to 1790. They are the Northern Pike, Roach, Stone Loach, Perch, and Minnow. Rarer native species include the Powan, found in only two locations and now under threat from introduced Ruffe and the Arctic Charr. The latter may have been the first fish species to re-enter fresh waters when the last ice age ended and circa 200 populations exist.^[43][68][69]

The Freshwater Pearl Mussel was once abundant enough to support commercial activities,^[70] and Scotland is the remaining European stronghold supporting protected populations in over 50 rivers, mainly in the Highlands.^[71]

Scotland’s seas, which constitute an area greater than that of the seas around the rest of the UK, are among the most biologically productive in the world. They are home to a third of the world’s whale and dolphin species, most of the UK’s maerl, (a collective term for several species of calcified red seaweed, and an important marine habitat), Horsemussel (Modiolus modiolus) and seagrass beds, and distinctive species like the Tall Sea Pen, Funiculina quadrangularis. It is estimated that the total number of Scottish marine species exceeds 40,000.^[7][16] This includes 250 species of fish, the most numerous inshore variety being Saithe,^[33] and deeper water creatures such as the Dogfish, Porbeagle and Blue Shark, European Eel, Sea Bass, Atlantic Halibut and various rays. There are 4 species of sea turtle, the Leatherback, Loggerhead, Kemp's Ridley and Green Turtle.^[72] Scottish waters contain around 2,500 crustacean species and 700 molluscs.^[16]

The Darwin Mounds are an important area of cold water coral reefs discovered in 1988 located at a depth of about 1,000 m (3,280 ft) in the Atlantic Ocean, about 185 km (115 mi) north west of Cape Wrath, and lying in the north-east corner of the Rockall trough. They cover an area of approximately 100 km² (39 mi²)and contain some hundreds of mounds of approximately 100 m (328 ft) in diameter and 5 m (16 ft) high, many having a teardrop shaped ‘tail’ orientated south-west of the mound. This feature may be unique globally. The tops of the mounds have living stands of Lophelia corals and support significant populations of the single celled Syringammina fragilissima. Fish have been observed in the vicinity, but not at higher densities than the background environment. Damage from trawler fishing was visible over about a half of the eastern Darwin Mounds surveyed during summer 2000 and the UK government is in the process of taking steps to protect the area.^[73] In 2003 the European Commission provided emergency protection and banned damaging fishing activity in the locality.^[74]

Further action on a much wider scale may be required. According to a recent report "Scotland's marine life could be almost wiped out within 50 years unless tough action is taken to manage the way humans use the seas". Fears were expressed by a consortium of environmental organisations that commercial fish stocks, including Atlantic Cod are suffering from over-fishing, that fish farming, especially for salmon is damaging the aquatic environment, a reduction in coastal marsh habitats is affecting marine bird life, litter in densely populated estuaries such as the Firth of Clyde is affecting all forms of marine life and that the growth in off-shore tourism was deleterious to populations of for example, Basking Shark. A call was made for a 'Scottish Marine Bill' to co-ordinate and manage human activity at sea and provide more protected areas such as marine national parks.^[76]

Calyptraea chinensis (L.) is a gastropod which has invaded the shores of Scotland and by 1998 has reached nearly as far north as Oban. One living specimen was found at Clachan Sound. There had been previous records of dead shells.^[77]

[edit] Extinctions

Pollution and predation led to the extinction of both species of Vendace from its very restricted range in south-western Scottish freshwaters in 1980. In the 1990s a successful attempt to re-introduce Coregonus vandesius to the Lochmaben area began. Coregonus albula remains absent.^{[78][79][80][81]}

[edit] Amphibians and land reptiles

There are only six amphibians and four land reptiles native to Scotland.^[82] The former include three species of newt - the Great Crested of which less than 1,000 individuals survive,^[83] Smooth and Palmate,^[84] and the Common Toad, Natterjack Toad (found in only four locations in the south west) and Common Frog. A single alien amphibian is known in Scotland, the Alpine Newt, a recent escapee confined to the Edinburgh area.^[43]

The reptiles are the snakes the Adder and the Grass Snake, the Slow-worm, which is a legless lizard and the Common Lizard. Smooth Snakes, found elsewhere in the UK are absent and Grass Snakes are only rarely reported.^[85]

[edit] Terrestrial invertebrates

There are 77 species of land snail^[86] and an estimated 14,000 species of insect in Scotland, none of them "truly" endemic.^[87] These include Pardosa lugubris, a species of wolf spider first found in the UK in 2000 at Abernethy Forest nature reserve, and the Scottish Wood Ant. These ants, which are the most numerous residents of the Caledonian pine forest, build mounds from the pine cones and needles they find on the forest floor that may be inhabited for decades. A single colony may collect 100,000 insects a day to feed its half million citizens and produce up to 250 kg of honeydew per season.^[8]

In addition to the Scottish Wood Ant there are several Scottish species of invertebrate that are otherwise rare in the UK, and important enough to have a specific "Action Plan" to provide protection. These are five species of ant and bee, six moths and butterfly, five flies and a single beetle (the Reed Beetle) and snail (the Round-mouthed Whorl Snail, Vertigo genesii).^[88][89] Northern Colletes is a rare species of bee, the most significant British habitat for which is in the Outer Hebrides where there are more than ten colonies.^[90] Scotland is also the UK stronghold of the Blaeberry Bumblebee.^[91]

Although many species of butterfly are in decline in the UK, recent research suggests that some, such as the Pearl-bordered Fritillary, Marsh Fritillary and Chequered Skipper, which are becoming rare in the rest of the UK, are moving north into Scotland in response to climate change.^[92][93] In June 2008 an adult Ethmia pyrausta moth was discovered in Easter Ross. This find was only the fifth sighting since its discovery in the UK at Loch Shin in 1853 and the species has gained "almost mythical status" according to Butterfly Conservation Scotland.^[94]

The most well-known invertebrate may be a species of midge (Culicoides impunctatus), a tiny flying gnat which is the scourge of summer visitors and residents alike. Its predations result in the loss of up to 20% of summer working days in the forestry industry.^[95] Others of significance include the Pine Weevil, Black Pine Beetle, Clytra Beetle, and the Timberman, a long-horned beetle.^[8][96] The archeological site at Skara Brae provided the earliest known record of the human flea, Pulex irritans in Europe.^[87]

[edit] Cryptozoology

A variety of exotic cats are rumoured to exist^[97] including the 'Beast of Buchan'.^[98][99] The 'Kellas Cat' of Moray is a jet black, long-legged animal, and is probably the result of a modern Wild Cat/domestic Cat hybrid, or a melanistic Wild Cat.^[100] In earlier times it may have spawned the legend of the Cat Sidhe or Fairy Cat.^[101] The fabulous Loch Ness Monster, possibly a form of "water horse", has a lengthy history, the first recorded sighting allegedly taking place in 565 AD.^[102]

[edit] Nature conservation in Scotland

[edit] Challenges

Conservation of the natural environment is well developed in the United Kingdom. Arguably, even now the resources of the organisations concerned are insufficient to the challenge but the contrast with earlier attitudes is striking. In Victorian times few animals became extinct in Scotland, but the scale of the slaughter on hunting estates was staggering. On a single estate in the Cairngorms between 1837 and 1840 the following "vermin" were exterminated by keepers purely in the interests of preserving the grouse population:

246 Martens, 198 Wild Cats, 106 Polecats, 67 Badgers, 58 Otters, 475 Ravens, 462 Kestrels, 371 Rough-legged Buzzards, 285 Common Buzzards, 275 Kites, 98 Peregrine Falcons, 92 Hen Harriers, 78 Merlins, 71 Short-eared Owls, 63 Goshawks, 35 Long-eared Owls, 27 Sea Eagles, 18 Ospreys, 15 Golden Eagles, 11 Hobbys, 6 Gyrfalcons, 5 Marsh Harriers, 3 Honey Buzzards,

and for reasons apparently unconnected to grouse shooting, a further

11 Foxes, 301 Stoats and Weasels, 78 House Cats, 1,431 Hooded or Carrion Crow, 3 Barn Owls, 8 Magpies and 7 "Orange-legged Falcons".

Writing in 1947 the recorder of these activities stated that his "first reaction to this dreadful black-list was that of amazed incredulity. I still find the details incredible. However, they were supplied by the lessee himself."^[103] To modern sensibilities it can be no less extraordinary. In several instances the totals are larger than the currently resident numbers for the entire country.

It remains to be seen if the destruction wrought by the Victorians continues to be the nadir for the fauna of Scotland. In addition to other difficulties the marine environment faces, climate change is a challenge facing all of Scotland's habitats. Amongst the birds, Ptarmigan, Dotterel and Snow Bunting in particular may be affected as they depend on high altitude habitats and populations are likely to decline if warmer weather brings competitors into their restricted ranges.^[4] Mammals and other vertebrates may fare better, although localised invertebrate populations are at risk. Marine life is already being affected. Planktonic species that prefer cold water are declining and not able support the crucial food chains on which many seabirds depend.^[104] Further evidence of problems for marine species has been provided by the St Andrews University Sea Mammal Research Unit. An analysis suggests that Common Seal populations in Orkney and Shetland fell by 40% from 2001 to 2006, prompting the Scottish Executive to announce the likelihood of a new protective conservation order.^[105]

The complexities involved in conserving Scottish wildlife are highlighted in an RSPB report, noting that Pine Martens have been found to be a significant predator of Capercaillie nests. Both species are protected, providing conservation agencies with a challenging conundrum to address.^[106]

[edit] Conservation organisations

There are various public sector organisations with an important role in the stewardship of the country's fauna. Scottish Natural Heritage is the statutory body responsible for natural heritage management in Scotland. One of their duties is to establish National Nature Reserves. Until 2004 there were 73, but a review carried out in that year resulted in a significant number of sites losing their NNR status, and as of 2006 there are 55.^[107] The Forestry Commission in Scotland serves as the forestry department of the Scottish Government and is one of the country's largest landowners. The Joint Nature Conservation Committee is the statutory adviser to Government on UK and international nature conservation.

The country has two national parks. Cairngorms National Park includes the largest area of arctic mountain landscape in the UK. Sites designated as of importance to natural heritage take up 39% of the land area, two thirds of which are of Europe-wide importance.^[108] Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park includes Britain's largest body of freshwater, the mountains of Breadalbane and the sea lochs of Argyll.

There are also numerous charitable and voluntary organisations with an important role to play, of which the more prominent include the following. The National Trust for Scotland is the conservation charity that protects and promotes Scotland's natural and cultural heritage. With over 270,000 members it is the largest conservation charity in Scotland. The Scottish Wildlife Trust is a leading voluntary conservation organisation, working to protect Scotland's natural environment. The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland is a learned society and registered charity that maintains Edinburgh Zoo and the Highland Wildlife Park (a safari park and zoo near Kingussie, which specialises in native fauna). The Society is also involved in various conservation programs around Scotland and the world. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds promotes conservation of birds and other wildlife through the protection and re-creation of habitats. The John Muir Trust is a charity whose main role is as a guardian of wild land and wildlife, through the ownership of land and the promotion of education and conservation. The trust owns and manages estates in various locations, including Knoydart, Assynt, and on the isle of Skye. It has links with the Sierra Club in the United States which also celebrates the legacy of Dunbar-born John Muir.^[109] Trees for Life is a charity that aims to restore a "wild forest" in the Northwest Highlands and Grampian Mountains.^[110]

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

[edit] General references

[edit] External links

• Scottish Natural Heritage
• Forestry Commission Scotland
• Joint Nature Conservation Committee
• Scottish Wildlife Trust
• Royal Zoological Society of Scotland
• Scotland's National Nature Reserves
• Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
• Scottish Seabird Centre
• Cairngorms National Park Authority
• Loch Lomond & The Trossachs National Park Authority
• John Muir Trust
• Trees for Life
• Butterfly Conservation Scotland

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