Saśigupta

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Saśigupta (Arrian Sisikottos; Curtius Sisocostus) was an historical personage of considerable eminence hailing from the Paropamisadaen region i.e region lying between Hindukush and Indus. His name appears twice in Arrian’s Anabasis and once in Historiae Alexendri Magni by Curtius. The name Saśigupta literally means “moon-protected”---the “Saśi” part of the name being equivalent to Chandra or the moon. Though many scholars write that Saśigupta was a ruler of some frontier hill state south of Hindukush [1], it is however, more appropriate to call him a military adventurer or a corporation leader coming from the warlike background of the fierce Ksatriya clan of the Asvakas from Massaga or Aornos or some other adjacent territory of the Asvakas. No ancient evidence is available which attests Sasigupta's royal back ground prior to his appointment by Alexander as ruler of the Asvakas of the Aornos country. Scholars are also at variance on the identity of Saśigupta. While some identify him with Chandragupta Maurya, the others say that Saśigupta and Chandragupta are two distinct historical personages —-- one from the north-west and the other from eastern India. There is also a third school of scholars who tend to connect Saśigupta as well as Chandragupta to north-west frontiers and relate them both to two separate branches of the Asvakas. Scholars like Dr J. C. Vidyalankara identify Saśigupta as a chieftain from the Kamboja land.

Contents

[edit] Ealy life of Saśigupta

Nothing is known about early life of Saśigupta. He was presumably a military adventurer, a leader of corporation of professional soldiers (band of mercenary soldiers) whose main goals were economic and military pursuits. An important statement in Kautiliya’s Arthashastra [2] abundantly proves the fact the corporations of warriors (Ksatriya Srenis) of the Kambojas etc existed in this period which offered military assistance to the outsiders on purely economic grounds. In all probability, Saśigupta was a professional soldier and led a corporation of mercenary soldier to help Persians especially Bessus, Iranian Satrap of Bactria but once his case was lost, Saśigupta along with band of warriors, threw his lot with the invaders (obviously as mercenary soldiersl) and thereafter rendered a great help to Alexander during his compaigns of Sogdiana and later also of the Kunar and Swat valleys.

[edit] Saśigupta, the Satrap of eastern Asvakas

In May 327 BCE, when Alexander invaded the republican territories of the Alishang/Kunar, Massaga and Aornos on the west of Indus, Saśigupta had rendered great service to the Macedonian invader in reducing several Ksatriya chiefs of the Asvakas of the Alishang/Kunar and Swat valleys. He appears to have done this in an understanding with Alexander that after the reduction of this territory, he would be made the lord of the country. And Arrian definitively confirms that after the reduction of the fort of Aornos in Swat where the Asvakas had put up a terrible resistance, Alexander entrusted the command of this extremely strategic fort of Aornos to Saśigupta and made him the Satrap of the surrounding country of eastern Asvakas [3].

[edit] Saśigupta vs Meroes, the friend of Poros

Towards the end of battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum), Arrian mentions a certain Meroes and attests him to be an Indian and an old friend of Poros. Arrian further attests that he was finally chosen by Alexander to bring the fleeing Poros back for concluding peace treaty with Macedonian invader [4]. It is notable that at the time of Poros’s war with Alexander, Saśigupta, the satrap of the eastern Asvakas had very cordial relations with Poros. In fact, he was on good terms both with Poros as well as Alexander and was finally chosen by Alexander to effect peace negotiations between him (Alexander) and Poros when Taxiles i.e. the ruler of Taxila had failed in this endeavor. It is more than likely, as several scholars have speculated, that Saśigupta may have alternatively been known also as Meroes ( = Sanskrit Maurya) after his native-land Meros (Mor or Mer in prakrit, perhaps Mt Meru of Sanskrit texts) [5] [6].

[edit] Saśigupta after the Assassination of Nicanor

A few months later when Alexander was still in Punjab and engaged in war with the Glausais of Ravi/Chenab, the Asvakas had assassinated Nicanor, the Greek governor of lower Kabul valley and also issued a threat to kill Saśigupta if he continued to cooperate with the invaders. While Phillipos was appointed to Nicanor’s place, no further reference to Saśigupta exists in classical sources. It appears likely that as a shrewd politician & statesman cum military general, Saśigupta had sensed the pulse of time and therefore after deserting Alexander’ camp, he had thrown his lot with the emerging group of insurgents. Thence afterwards, Sasigupta seems to appear under an alternative name----Moeres or Moeris of the classical chroniclers. It is notable that Moeres, Moeris, Meris and Meroes are all equivalent terms [7]. Arrian writes Meroes [8] while Curtius spells it as Moeres or Moeris [9]. Chieftain Moeris of lower Indus delta (Patala) referenced by Curtius seems precisely to be the same person as Meroes of north-west, attested to be old friend of Poros by Arrian [10]. Alexander was apparently annoyed at this development and pursued Saśigupta who appears to have fled with his followers to lower Indus. He probably appears there as Moeres of Curtius, a chief of Patala [11]. It is but natural that after joining the band of insurgents, Saśigupta alias Meroes or Moeres became a leader of the group of rebels and started his struggle for realizing his bigger goals for bigger regal power. Dr. Ranajit Pal maintains[12] that Sashigupta was the same as Moeris or Maurya (Chandragupta). According to him Moeris was the same as Orontobates who fought against Alexander the Great.

[edit] Saśigupta vs Chandragupta

Dr Seth observes: "If we take into account the practice Alexander followed of putting in-charge of the area which he conquered the vanquished ruler himself or some equally influential from among the people, we find no difficulty in assuming that Saśigupta either belonged to the ruling Asvaka dynasty of the area of which Massaga and Aornos were the centers, or to some other influential ruling Asvaka family of west of Indus. Obviously this was the only way in which Alexander could get support of the entirely alien people.......Macedonian conqueror did it in case of Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila and as also Porus, the ruler of territories falling between Jhelum and Vipasa (Bias)".

It is very conspicuous that Saśigupta (Sisikottos) and Chandragupta (Sandrokotos) both names literally mean “moon-protected”. “Saśi” part of Saśigupta has exactly the same meaning in Sanskrit as the “Chandra” part of Chandragupta-- both mean “the moon”. Thus, the two names are exact synonyms [13]. Scholars say that it is not an uncommon practice in India to substitute one’s given name with a synonym [14]. Thus, it appears very likely, as many scholars believe, that Chandragupta may have been an alternative name for Saśigupta and both names essentially refer to same individual. This view is further reinforced if we compare the early lives of Saśigupta and Chandragupta. Both men are equally remarkable, both are military adventurers par excellence, both are rebellious and opportunists, both are equally ambitious, both are far-sighted and shrewed statesmen, and lastly but more importantly, both emerge in history precisely at the same time and at the same place in north-west India. Plutarch’s classic statement that Andrakottos had met Alexander in his youth days [15] probably alludes to the years when Saśikottos had gone to help Iranians against Alexander at Bactria in 329 BCE. J. W. McCrindle concludes from Plutarch's statement that Chandragupta was native of Punjab rather than Magadha [16]. Appian’s statement: "And having crossed Indus, Seleucus warred with Androkottos, the king of the Indians, who dwelt about that river (the Indus)" [17] clearly shows that Chandragupta was initially a ruler of Indus country [18]. Scholars like Dr H. C. Seth and Dr H. R. Gupta term this evidence from Appian as worthy of greatest consideration which other scholars appear to have taken lightly [19] [20]. It was only after Chandragupta's war with Seleucus which took place in in 305 BCE [21] and the defeat of the latter that Chandragupta appears to have shifted his capital and residence from north-west to Pataliputra, which was also the political headquarters of the regime he had succeeded to.

Dr Seth concludes: "If Chandragupta is identical to Saśigupta, then we find no difficulty in assuming that he indeed belonged to the Ksatriya clan of the Asvakas whose influence extended from the Hindukush to eastern Punjab at the time of Alexander's invasion. With Mauryan conquest of other parts of India, these Asvakas settled in other parts of India as well. From Buddhist literature, we also read of southern Asvakas (or Assakas or Asmakas) on the bank of river Godavary in Trans-Vindhya country. The Asvakas are said to have belonged the great Lunar dynasty..... In the region lying between Hindukush and Indus, Alexander received terrible resistance from the Ksatriya tribe called Asvakas"" [22].

Some scholars believe that the insurgency against the Greek rule in north-west had first started probably in lower Indus [23]. If this is true, then Moeris of Patala may indeed have been the pioneer in this revolution and he may be assumed to be the same person as Meroes of north-west i.e Chandragupta Maurya [24], alternatively known also as Saśigupta [25] originally a native of the Swat/Kunar valleys west of Indus. Other scholars like Dr B. M. Barua, Dr H. C. Seth etc also identify Saśigupta with Chandragupta. As noted above, Dr J. W. McCrindle calls Chandragupta a native of Panjab [26]. American archaeologist David B. Spooner thinks that Chandragupta was an Iranian who had established a dynasty in Magadha [27]. Based on the classical evidence, Dr H. R. Gupta thinks that Chandragupta as well as Saśigupta both belonged to northwest frontiers and both probably belonged to two separate branches of the Asvaka Ksatriyas [28]. Dr Chandra Chakravarti also relates Sasigupta and Chandragupta to northwest frontiers and states that Saśigupta belonged to Malkand whereas Chandragupta Maurya was a ruler of Ujjanaka or Uddyana (Swat) territory of the Asvakas [29].

[edit] Was Chandragupta a Kamboja emperor?

If it is true that name Saśigupta and Chandragupta refer to same historical personage, then it must also follow that Chandragupta was native of Uttarapatha (north-west division) and belonged to some influential family of the Asvakas, west of Indus [30]. He initially started his career as war-leader or military adventurist and led a corporation of warriors to the aid of Persians. It is well known from classical sources that mercenary soldiers from north-west frontiers were frequently requisitioned by Persians rulers of Achaemenid line. It is also clear from a reliable contemporary witnesses such as Kautiliya who powerfully attests that the Kambojas and other north-west frontier people, at this period, lived by varta as well as by the use of weapons (Varta-shastropajivi). Panini, in his Ashtadhyayi, includes the Ashvayana and Ashvakayana [31] sections of the Kambojas into republican people and styles them as Parvata Ayuddhajivi Samghas (mountaineer or highlander fighters's republics) [32] [33] [34]. The Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas of Panini are the Aspasioi and Assakenoi of the classical writings and the Asvakas of the Mahabharata as well as of the Puranas. The Asvakas formed a section of the greater Kamboja tribes who had spread on both sides of Hindukush mountains. They were exclusively engaged in horse-culture, were known as distinguished breeders of notable horses and famous as expert cavalry (horsemen) [35]. See Ashvakas. Srimad Devi Bhagawatam of Markandeya Purana brackets the Kambojas and the Mauryas together as allied warrior clans and calls them both as Asuras (Ahuras?)[36] [37]. There are also epic references to Maurya king Ashoka which style him as Maha-Asura---i.e. great Demon [38]. Similarly, king Chandravarma Kamboja who finds mention in the Adiparva of the epic Mahābhārata is also styled as powerful Asura or a Demonic ruler, the incarnation of Chandra, foremost among the sons of Diti [39] [40]. Same Adiparva of Mahabharata also styles king Ashoka Maurya as an incarnation of Asva (or Asvaka) and a son of Diti [41] which seems to connect him or his lineage to the Asvakas (Kamboja section) of north-west. Manusmriti [42] as well as Mahabharata [43] both style the Kambojas etc as Vrishalah [44]. On the other hand, Sanskrit play Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadatta styles Chandragupta as Vrishala. Marcus Junianius attests that Chandragupta had a humble origin. It is notable that no ancient source attests Saśigupta to be ruler of any kingdom in the north-west prior to his appointment by Alexander as a governor of Aornos country of the eastern Asvakas. It is all merely scholars' speculation that he was perhaps a ruler of some hill state west of upper Indus and came of a royal background. As noted afore, he was in all probability, a remarkable military adventurer of non-royal background, hence Justin's statement that he rose from a commoner is perfectly compatible. Buddhist literature like Mahavamsa relates Mauryas to Ksatriya lineage [45]. On the other hand, Panini's Ashtadhyayi [46], Manusmriti [47], Mahabharata [48], Harivamsa [49] and numerous Puranas etc also list the Kambojas as Ksatriyas.

From the foregoing discussion it appears likely that Chandragupta alias Saśigupta belonged to some Asvaka branch west of upper Indus and hence may have been from a Kamboja background.

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Cambridge History of Ancient India, ed . E.J. Rapson, p.314.
  2. ^
    Sanskrit:
    Kamboja.Suraastra.Ksatriya.shreny.aadayovartasastra.upajiivinah|
    Licchivika.Vrjika.Mallaka.Madraka.Kukura.Kuru.Panchala.adayo raaja.shabda.upajiivinah||
    (Kautiliya Arathashastra, 11.1.03).
    Trans: "The corporations of warriors (Kshatriya shrenis) of the Kamboja and Surashtra and some other nations live by agtriculture, trade and by wielding weapons. The corporations of Lichchhivika,Vrijika, Mallaka, Mudraka, Kukura, Kuru, Pánchála and others live by the title of a Rája" (Kautiliya's Arathashastra, 1956, p 407, Dr R. Shamashastri).
  3. ^ Arrian’s Anabasis, 1893, Book 4b, Ch xxx, and Book 5b, ch xx, E. J. Chinnock; The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, 1896, p 112, Dr John Watson M'Crindle; The History and Culture of the Indian People, 1969, p 49, Dr Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bhāratīya Itihāsa Samiti; Historiae Alexandri Magni, Book 8, Ch XI, Curtius.
  4. ^ Arrian Anabasis, 1893, Book 5b, Ch xviii, , E. J. Chinnock; The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, 1896, pp 108, 109, Dr John Watson M'Crindle; Political and Social Movements in Ancient Panjab, 1964, p 172, Dr Buddha Prakash.
  5. ^ Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1936, p 164, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute - Indo-Aryan philology, Dr H. C. Seth; The Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 673, India; Punjab History Conference, Second Session, October 28-30, 1966, Punjabi University Patiala, pp 32-35, Dr H. R. Gupta; The Indian Review , 1937, p 814, edited by G.A. Natesan - India.
  6. ^ IMPORTANT NOTE: Sasigupta is called an Indian by Arrian. Arrian also calls the Asvakas as an Indian. Arrian further calls Meroes also as an Indian and an old friend of Poros. In this context, it is worth remembering that while the Kamboja sections in Trans-Hindukush region were purely Iranians, those lying in the cis-Hindukush region are known to have been partly Iranian and partly under Indian culture. Thus, whereas the Kunar (Choaspes = river of good horses) section of the Asvaka branch is known in classical writings as "Aspasioi" (from Iranian Aspa = horse), those living in the Swat (Suastos) valley were known as Assakenoi i.e. Asvakas (from Sanskrit Asva = horse). The dividing line between Iran and India was approximately Panjkora (or Guraeus) river (See: The Pathans, 1958, p 55/56, Olaf Caroe). Thus there should be no objection if Arrian calls the Assakenoi people as well as Sisicottos & Meroes, all as Indians (See: Arrain Anabasis, Book 4b, Ch xxx; Book 5b, Ch xviii, Book 5b, Ch xx).
  7. ^ Age of Nandas, and Mauryas, 1967, p 427, K. A. Nilakanta Sastri; Maurajya Samarajya Samsakrik Itihasa, 1972, B. P. Panthar; Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahminabad, 1975, p 26, Pierre Herman Leonard Eggermont; Indological Studies, 1977, p 100, Unversity of Sindh, Institute of Sindology.
  8. ^ Arrian’s Anabasis, Book 5b, Ch xx.
  9. ^ Historiae Alexandri Magni, ix,8,29.
  10. ^ Arrian’s Anabasis, Book 5b, Ch xx.
  11. ^ Historiae Alexandri Magni, ix,8,29.
  12. ^ See Ranajit Pal, Non-Jonesian Indology and Alexander,New Delhi, 2002.
  13. ^ Chandragupta Maurya, 1969, p 8, Lallanji Gopal; The Indian Historical Quarterly, v.13, 1937, p 361; The Indian Review, 1937, p 814, edited by G.A. Natesan.
  14. ^ Did Candragupta Maurya belong to North-Western India?, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1936, p 163, Dr S. C. Seth; Was Chandragupta Maurya a Punjabi?, Punjab History Conference, Second Session, Oct 28-30, 1966, Punjabi University Patiala, p 32, Dr H. R. Gupta
  15. ^ Plutarch’s Life of Alexander, Chapter LXII; The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, 1896, p 311, John Watson M'Crindle.
  16. ^ The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, 1896, p 405, John Watson M'Crindle .
  17. ^ Appian's Roman History, XI.55 .
  18. ^ Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona,1936, Vol xviii, part 2, pp 161, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Dr H. C. Seth.
  19. ^ Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona,1936, Vol xviii, part 2, pp 161, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Dr H. C. Seth.
  20. ^ Dr Seth writes: "The scholars have not treated the evidence from Appian with the attention it deserved. Appian (Syriakê, c. 55) was Syrian historian, whose references to Chandragupta (Androkottos) are worthy of greatest consideration because of the very intimate relations between Seleucus Nicator, the founder of Syrian empire and Chandragupta Maurya the founder of Indian empire. Speaking of Seleucus, Appian says: 'And having crossed Indus, he warred with Androkottos, the king of the Indians, who dwelt about that river (the Indus), until he entered into an alliance and marriage affinity with him'. This statement from Appian clearly shows that Chandragupta was initially a ruler of Indus country" (Op cit. 1937, p 161, Dr H. C. Seth). .
  21. ^ The Cambridge History of India, 1962, p 424, Edward James Rapson, Wolseley Haig, Richard Burn, Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler, Henry Dodwell; The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, 1910, p 839, Edited by Hugh Chisholm; A History of Asia, 1964, p 149, Woodbridge Bingham - Asia History; Chronology of World History, 1975, p 69, G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville.
  22. ^ Did Candragupta Maurya belong to North-Western India?, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1936, Vol xviii, part 2, pp 158-164, Dr S. C. Seth.
  23. ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 236, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury.
  24. ^ Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p 133, D Buddha Prakash; Studies in Alexander's Campaigns, 1973, p 40, Binod Chandra Sinha.
  25. ^ Poisoning of Alexander ( part 2 ), Newsfinder, History section, Dr Ratanjit Pal.
  26. ^ The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, 1896, p 405, John Watson M'Crindle
  27. ^ Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1915, Part I, p 406, Part II, pp 416-17.
  28. ^ Was Chandragupta Maurya a Punjabi?, Punjab History Conference, Second Session, Oct 28-30, 1966, Punjabi University Patiala, p 32-35, Dr H. R. Gupta.
  29. ^ The Racial History of Ancient India, 1944, p 814, Chandra Chakraberty.
  30. ^ Op cit. 1937, p 163, Dr H. C. Seth; The Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 361, India; Indian Review, 1937, p 814, edited by G.A. Natesan; Note on Saśigupta and Candragupta, The Indian Historical Quarterly/edited by Narendra Nath Law, Vol. XIII. Articles:, Miscellany,. Reprint. Delhi, Caxton, 1998, 39 Volumes; Indian Culture, vol. X, p. 34.
  31. ^ Ashtadshyayi: Sutra IV-1, 110; Nadadi gana IV-1, 99.
  32. ^ Parvata Ayuddhajivin defined in Ashtadhyayi Sutra IV.3.91.
  33. ^ See also: Indian as known to Panini, 1953, pp 438/39, pp 36-457, Dr V. S. agarwala; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, p 162, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī.
  34. ^ NOTE: The Ashvayanas (Aspasioi) and Ashvakayanas/Asvakas (Assakenoi) were free or republican people at the time of Alexander's invasion of India (See ref: The History and Culture of Indian People, 1969, p 45, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bhāratīya Itihāsa Samiti; Alexander the Great, 2003, p 324, Dr W. W. Tarn; Development of Hindu Polity and Political Theories, 1938, p 5, Narayanchandra Banerjee - Constitutional history.
  35. ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133 fn 6, pp 216-20, (Also Commentary p 576 fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era, 1988, p 100 - History; Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10, Dr Buddha Parkash; Historie du bouddhisme Indien, p110, Dr E. Lammotte; Hindu Polity, A constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal; The History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 225, Editors Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh; Raja Poros, 1990, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University Patiala; History of Poros, 1967, p 89, Dr Buddha Prakash; Dr J. W. McCrindle says that the modern Afghanistan -- the Kaofu (Kambu) of Hiun Tsang was ancient Kamboja and the name Afghan evidently derives from the Ashavakan, the Assakenoi of Arrian (Alexandra's Invasion of India, p 38; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180, J. McCrindle); East and West, 1950, pp 28, 157-58, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti; Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981, pp 271-72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192, K. S. Dardi; Kambojas, Through the Ages, 2005, pp 129, 218-19, S Kirpal Singh; Sir Thomas H. Holdich, in his classic book, (The Gates of India, p 102-03), writes that the Aspasians (Aspasioi) represent the modern Kafirs. But the modern Kafirs, especially the Siah-Posh Kafirs (Kamoz/Camoje, Kamtoz) etc are considered to be modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas.
  36. ^ Markandeya Purana v 5.28.1-12.
  37. ^ Dr H. C. Raychoudhury also refers to this verse of Srimad Devi Bhagawatam/Markendeya Purana with reference to the Mauryas and Ashoka Maurya (See: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 5, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee).
  38. ^ See: Mahabharata XII.5.7.
  39. ^ Mahabharata 1.67.31-32, Gorakhpore edition.
  40. ^ Epic Mythology, 1915, p 62, Edward Washburn Hopkins - Hindu Mythology.
  41. ^ Mahabharata I.67.13-14.
  42. ^ Manusmriti X.43-44.
  43. ^ Mahabharata verse 13.33.21.
  44. ^ Note: The term Vrishala was applied to the high class Kshatriyas who did not entertain the Brahmanas and observe sacred codes recommended in the Brahmanical texts (Ref: Chandragupta Maurya, National Book Trust, India, p 31-32, Gopal Lallanji).
  45. ^ Mauryanam Khattyanam vamse jatam (Mahavamsa, Geiger Trans p 27).
  46. ^ Ashtadhyayi Sutra 4.1.168-175.
  47. ^ Manusmriti X.43.44.
  48. ^ Mahabharata 13.33.20-21.
  49. ^ Harivamsa, 14.19-20.

[edit] Some References

  • Indian Historical Quarterly, vol.8 (1932), B. M. Barua
  • Indian Culture, vol. X, p. 34, B. M. Barua
  • The Zoroastrian period of Indian history, (Journnal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1915, 1915, (Pt.II), pp 406, 416-17, D.B. Spooner
  • Invasion India by Alexander the Great, 1896, p 112, 405/408 J. W. McCrindle
  • Did Candragupta Maurya belong to North-Western India?, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1936, Vol xviii, part 2, p 158-165, Dr S. C. Seth
  • Was Chandragupta Maurya a Punjabi?, Punjab History Conference, Second Session, Oct 28-30, 1966, Punjabi University Patiala, p 32-35, Dr H. R. Gupta
  • Was Chandragupta a Kamboj?, The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 149-154, Kirpal Singh
  • They Taught Lessons to Kings, Gur Rattan Pal Singh; Article in Sunday Tribune, January 10, 1999
  • The Indian Review, 1937, p 814, edited by G.A. Natesan
  • The Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 361, India
  • Indian Culture, 1934, p 305, Indian Research Institute- India
  • Note on Saśigupta and Candragupta, The Indian Historical Quarterly/edited by Narendra Nath Law, Vol. XIII. Articles:, Miscellany,. Reprint. Delhi, Caxton, 1998, 39 Volumes
  • Asoka and His Inscriptions, 1968, p 51, Beni Madhab Barua, Ishwar Nath Topa
  • Paradise of Gods, 1966, p 312, Qamarud Din Ahmed - West Pakistan (Pakistan)
  • Poisoning of Alexander ( Part 2 ), Newsfinder, 2008, History Section, Dr Ratanjit Pal
  • Age of Nandas, and Mauryas, 1967, p 427, K. A. Nilakanta Sastri
  • Maurajya Samarajya Samsakrik Itihasa, 1972, B. P. Panthar
  • Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahminabad, 1975, p 26, Pierre Herman Leonard Eggermont
  • Indological Studies, 1977, p 100, Unversity of Sindh, Institute of Sindology
  • THE POISONING OF ALEXANDER BY THE GENERALS AND SASIGUPTA, Dr Ranajit Pal) See Link [1]

[edit] See also