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Buddhism is conventionally classified as a religion, a point on which a variety of views have been expressed. It was founded around the fifth century BCE by Gautama Buddha in what is now India. Buddhism spread throughout the Indian subcontinent and into neighboring countries (such as Sri Lanka) in the few centuries following the Buddha's passing. It spread further into Asia and elsewhere over the next two millennia. It is now the one of the largest religions in the world, by number of adherents. It exists in a wide variety of forms, and there is disagreement on whether these have a common essence.

Note on languages. In accordance with standard practice among Western scholars, Sanskrit forms of words are used in talking of Buddhism in general, or Mahayana in general (even though Mahayana itself does not use Sanskrit much), while Pali is used in specifically Theravada contexts. Thus for example the Buddha's name is spelled Gotama in Pali.

Contents 1 History 1.1 The early period 1.2 Expansion 1.3 The period of separation 1.3.1 Theravada 1.3.2 East Asia 1.3.3 Tibetan Buddhism 1.4 Buddhism today 2 Divisions 2.1 Southern (Theravāda) Buddhism 2.2 East Asian Buddhism 2.3 Tibetan Buddhism 3 Doctrine 3.1 Rebirth and karma 3.2 The Four Noble Truths 3.3 Transcending rebirth 4 Practice 4.1 Devotion 4.2 Study 4.3 Morality 4.4 Meditation 5 Scriptures 6 Buddhist symbols 7 Comparative study 8 See also 9 References 10 Suggested Reading 11 Notes 12 External links

[edit] History

[edit] The early period

Prince Siddhartha Gautama is believed by Buddhists to have been born in Lumbini^[1] and raised in Kapilavastu near the present-day Indian-Nepalese border.^[2] After his attainment of "Awakening" (bodhi - popularly called "Enlightenment" in the West) at the age of 35, he was known as Buddha or Gautama Buddha and spent the rest of his life teaching his insights (Dharma).^[3] According to scholars, he lived around the fifth century BCE, but his more exact birthdate is open to debate.^[4] He died around the age of 80 in Kushinagara (Pali Kusinara)(India).^{[citation needed]}

According to the scriptures, the first Buddhist council was held soon after the parinirvāṇa (Pāli: parinibbāna, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha.^[5] As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teaching to ensure that no errors occur in oral transmission.^{[citation needed]}

It is generally agreed among scholars that the traditional accounts are greatly exaggerated, if not totally fictitious.^[6]

As the Saṅgha gradually grew over the next century or so, a dispute arose regarding ten points of the Vinaya, the monk's code of discipline. A Second Buddhist Council (said in most traditions to have taken place 100 years after the Buddha's death) was held to resolve the points of dispute.^[7]

At some period after the Second Council, however, the Sangha began to break into separate factions. The details are unclear, but scholars are now generally agreed that the dispute was again about vinaya. The stricter party came to be known as Sthavira(vada) (Theravada) and the less strict as Mahasanghika.

Both of these schools further subdivided during the ensuing centuries. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.^[8]

[edit] Expansion

Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Aśoka the Great, who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more Buddhist religious memorials (stūpas) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into other lands: missionaries were sent south to the island of Sri Lanka. Buddhism became the established religion in Sri Lanka almost immediately. It also spread up through central Asia, reaching China about the first century CE. From there it spread to Korea in the fourth century, and from there to Japan in 538 CE. It reached Tibet in the seventh century (or possibly earlier).

Main article: Mahayana

A radical movement known as Mahayana emerged gradually from mainstream Buddhism, perhaps becoming fully separate about the third century. Compared with it, the differences between earlier schools are quite minor. The roots from which it developed continued to exist within the earlier schools, which it called by the derogatory name Hinayana or the more polite one Sravakayana.

During this period there were quite extensive contacts between Buddhism in different countries. For example, some Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian (Fa-hsien), travelled as far as Sri Lanka, while a group of nuns travelled from Sri Lanka to China to help establish the order of nuns there.

Main article: Vajrayana

A movement variously called Vajrayana, Mantrayana, Tantrayana or tantric or esoteric Buddhism emerged at the end of the seventh century, again developing from earlier roots. From one point of view it is part of the Mahayana, but it is often considered the third yana, in which case the unambiguous term Paramitayana is available for the second, though Mahayana is often used in the narrower sense as well.

[edit] The period of separation

Beginning from the fifth century, political instability along the silk route connecting India and China greatly reduced the level of contact, and China started to develop its own forms of Buddhism. Persecutions of Buddhism in China and Tibet in the ninth century further reduced contacts, as did the decline of Buddhism in India. After the destruction of the great North Indian monastic universities by Muslim invaders about 1200, Buddhism ceased to be a major force in most of India, though it survived in gradually shrinking pockets for centuries. After this time, the three main branches of Buddhism outside India developed largely in isolation until recently:

• Theravada
• East Asian
• Tibetan

[edit] Theravada

In earlier times a variety of forms of Buddhism were found in Sri Lanka, but in the twelfth century the remaining "unorthodox" forms were "voluntarily" reunited with the main Theravada school at the "suggestion" of King Parakkamabahu I, and most of their writings are now lost. This form of Buddhism is fairly close to the early, pre-Mahayana tradition, including the roots from which Mahayana and Vajrayana evolved, though some elements from later traditions were adopted. Over the first few centuries of the second millennium, missionaries carried Theravada from Sri Lanka to Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. In these countries it displaced the syncretism of Hinduism and tantric Buddhism that had spread there from North India, though again some elements of this tradition were adopted. In all these countries, and some border regions of neighbouring ones, Theravada has remained the dominant religion since then.

[edit] East Asia

In China, although various Indian schools continued to be studied, the main forms of Mahayana followed there were Chinese developments. From about the thirteenth century they became fused, no longer existing as separate schools. A similar process took place in Korea, and in Vietnam where Buddhism had spread from China from about the tenth century. Only in Japan is Buddhism really divided into separate "denominations". East Asian Buddhism coexists with other sophisticated traditions: for example, in traditional China, most people were quite happy to "belong" to Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism simultaneously.

[edit] Tibetan Buddhism

From the thirteenth century, Buddhism spread to the Mongol peoples, including those within the borders of Russia. Tibetan Buddhism is dominated by Vajrayana.

[edit] Buddhism today

In recent times the different traditions have started once more to interact seriously with each other, and have also come into contact with the modern world. This has produced a great profusion of new movements, some within existing groups,some openly separate.

In recent times Buddhism has revived in India and Indonesia and spread to the West.

Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary from 230 to 500 million, but the most common figure today is between 350 and 400 million.^[9]

See also Buddhism by country

[edit] Divisions

Since the death of Gautama Buddha many forms of Buddhism that vary widely in practice, philosophical emphasis, and culture have developed. The most frequently used classification of present-day Buddhism among scholars^[10] divides present-day adherents into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravada, East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.

An alternative scheme used by some scholars^{[11][page # needed]} has two divisions, Theravada and Mahayana. In this classification, Mahayana includes both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. This scheme is the one ordinarily used in the English language,^[12] and most of the scholars who use the above tripartite scheme as their basic classification accept this use of the term Mahayana. Some scholars^[13] use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes.

[edit] Southern (Theravāda) Buddhism

Main article: Theravada

Theravada can be considered as a single denomination. Its monastic order is divided into a number of nikayas with slightly different interpretations of the rules of discipline, but most of these collaborated in the council held in Rangoon between 1954 and 1956.

[edit] East Asian Buddhism

Main article: Mahayana

There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified traditional form of Buddhism, though in recent times some new denominations have been founded, such as Won in Korea and Hoa Hao in Vietnam. However, in Japan the main strands form separate denominations. The five major groups are the following.

• Chan/Zen in two main subdivisions:
  • Soto, the larger
  • Rinzai
• Pure Land in two main subdivisions:
  • Jodo Shu, the older
  • Jodo Shinshu, the larger
• Nichiren, peculiar to Japan, including Nichiren Shoshu (Soka Gakkai)
• Shingon, a form of Vajrayana
• Tendai

Most of these are further subdivided.

[edit] Tibetan Buddhism

Main article: Vajrayana

There are four main schools of Tibetan Buddhism:

• Nyingmapa, the oldest
• Kagyupa, with six main subdivisions, including the Drukpa of Bhutan
• Sakyapa
• Gelugpa, the largest, of which the Dalai Lama is the most well-known representative

The differences between these schools are much more minor than those in Japan, and it may not be correct to regard them as separate denominations: for example, their tulkus ("incarnate lamas") certify each other.

[edit] Doctrine

Some scholars maintain that an adequate summary of Buddhist thought and practice is impossible in a brief account such as this.^[14]

The original teaching of the Buddha remains a matter of disagreement among scholars. Compare, for example, the contrasting theories of Professors Nakamura^[15] and Gombrich^[16], and the skeptical attitude of Professor Lopez:

"The original teachings of the historical Buddha are extremely difficult, if not impossible, to recover or reconstruct."^[17]

About all Buddhists few valid generalizations are possible.^[18]

All schools of Buddhism agree that doctrines are taught because they are spiritually beneficial. Theravada has a fairly consistent system of doctrine, which it appears to believe is actually true as well as beneficial. Mahayana, on the other hand, seems quite happy to teach a variety of apparently contradictory doctrines, which makes it hard to say what its "real" doctrines are, if any. Doctrinally oriented subtraditions have produced schemes of levels of truth, and the account here is based mainly on these, but it must be borne in mind that teachers in less doctrinally oriented subtraditions may disagree with these, and each other, or may not know, or even care, what they say.

[edit] Rebirth and karma

Rebirth (strictly speaking, reconception) has no discernible beginning, and takes place in a variety of types of life, later formally classified as the Five or Six Realms:

• gods
• (sometimes) asuras, variously translated as demons, antigods, titans
• humans
• ghosts (many sources restrict this to a particular type, hungry ghosts)
• animals
• hell-dwellers

Theravada has five realms, East Asian Buddhism six, while both schemes are in use in the Tibetan tradition.

The karma of good and bad deeds produces "rewards" and "punishments" either in this life or in a subsequent one. These may be either rebirths themselves or events therein. Human and higher rebirths result from good karma, lower ones from bad karma. The lower levels of good deeds belong to the subject of Sila or conduct. Rebirths among the higher levels of gods can be attained only by the practice of forms of meditation classified as samatha or samadhi. Those with sufficient merit can to some extent decide their own rebirth.

[edit] The Four Noble Truths

Main article: The Four Noble Truths

The early teaching^[19] and the traditional understanding in the Theravada^[20] is that these are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. However, in modern Sri Lanka they are taught to children in Sunday schools.

Stricly speaking Truths is a mistranslation of sacca/satya, which properly means reality: these are "things", not statements.^[21]

According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there exists Dukkha, which is in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused by desire and it can be brought to cessation by following the Noble Eightfold Path (Sanskrit: Āryāṣṭāṅgamārgaḥ , Pāli: Ariyo Aṭṭhaṅgiko Maggo). This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: Cattāri Ariyasaccāni), or the "Four Noble Truths".

1. There is suffering
2. There is a cause of suffering
3. There is the cessation of suffering
4. There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering - the Noble Eightfold Path

According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were among the topics of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment,^[22] which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practised austerities. The Four Noble Truths were originally spoken by the Buddha not in the form of a religious or philosophical text, but in the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at that time.

Main article: Noble Eightfold Path

According to a saying attributed in some traditions to the Buddha, if a person does not follow the Eightfold Path, one lives one's life like a preoccupied child playing with toys in a house that is burning to the ground.^[23]

There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development.

The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. This is divided into three sections: Sila (which concerns wholesome physical actions), Samadhi (which concerns the meditative concentration of the mind) and Prajñā (which concerns spiritual insight into the true nature of all things).

Main article: Sila

Sila is morality — abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. Within the division of sila are three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

1. Right Speech — One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way (samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)
2. Right Actions — Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm (samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)
3. Right Livelihood — One's way of livelihood does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva)

Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is usually translated into English as "morality", "ethics", "virtue" or "precept".^{[citation needed]} It is an action that is an intentional effort.^{[citation needed]} It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the second pāramitā. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment, i.e. no longer being susceptible to perturbation by the passions.^{[citation needed]}

Sīla refers to overall (principles of) ethical behavior. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to 'basic morality' (five precepts), 'basic morality with asceticism' (eight precepts), 'novice monkhood' (ten precepts) and 'monkhood' (Vinaya or Patimokkha).^{[citation needed]} Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools.^{[citation needed]} If they wish, they can choose to undertake the eight precepts, which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.

Main article: Samadhi

Samadhi is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division are another three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

1. Right Effort/Exercise — One makes an effort to improve (samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)
2. Right Mindfulness/Awareness — Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness (samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)
3. Right Concentration/Meditation — Being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion. (samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)

In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyaksamādhi is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating samādhi is meditation. Almost all Buddhist schools agree that the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. samatha meditation (Sanskrit: śamatha) and vipassanā meditation (Sanskrit: vipaśyanā). Upon development of samādhi, one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.

Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhāna, Sanskrit ध्यान dhyāna), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassanā) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of mindfulness is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.

Main article: Prajñā

Prajñā is the wisdom which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two more parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

1. Right Understanding — Understanding reality as it is, not just as it appears to be. (samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)
2. Right Thoughts — Change in the pattern of thinking. (samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)The word samyak means "perfect".

Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination, The Four Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining nirvāṇa, through its revelation of the true nature of all things. Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six pāramitās of the Mahayana.

Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. The Buddha taught dharma to his disciples mainly through the mean of discourse or sermon,^{[citation needed]} many attaining nirvana upon hearing the Buddha's discourse.

Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. Lastly, one engages in insight (vipassanā, Sanskrit vipaśyanā) meditation ^{[citation needed]} to attain such wisdom at intuitive level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation. Mahayana regards the Four Noble Truths as a preliminary teaching for those not ready for its own teachings.^[24]

[edit] Transcending rebirth

According to Theravada, one who has fully understood intuitively the Four Noble Truths is called an arahant, meaning worthy. They are divided into three grades:

• Sammāsambuddha, who finds the truth for himself and teaches it to others; the term Buddha usually applies to these only
• Paccekabuddha, who finds the truth for himself but is unable to teach it to others
• Sāvakabuddha, who is taught the truth directly or indirectly by a Buddha; these, unlike the other two, may be either male or female (or, in the case of certain gods, beyond sex)

When an arahant dies, they cease to exist in any definable sense.

Mahayana includes much teaching of the bodhisattva path, leading to Buddhahood, and does not agree with the characterization of Buddhas as finding the truth for themselves. It generally adopted the doctrine that this is ultimately the only path, and that other arhants must follow this path eventually.

It also generally adopted the doctrine that the historical Buddha was not a real human being who reached enlightenment, but a magical creation, a projection of a celestial Buddha who had attained enlightenment ages before and continues to act in the world for the benefit of beings.^[25] Theravada recognizes the power of the Buddha to produce such creations, but holds he had a real human body as well. Mahayana generally adopted the doctrine that human beings may attain Buddhahood in this life, but they would then cease to be human and could maintain an apparent human body only by such powers.

According to the Tibetan tradition, a Buddha continues to act in the world indefinitely, in some sense (the detailed explanation is a matter of internal disagreement), as against the Theravada view described above (though Theravada tradition does recognize that the Buddha, while alive, can exercise his powers so as to have effects after his death). The main doctrinal tradition in China and Japan, T'ien-t'ai/Tiantai/Chontae/Tendai, agrees with Theravada against the Tibetans that a Buddha in the strictest sense ceases to act in the world after death, but draws a different conclusion: a bodhisattva sufficiently advanced to be able to achieve Buddhahood would choose not to do so, in order to remain in the world to help others. (Theravada disagrees with the possibility of this, saying one still sunk in the mud cannot help others out of it.) On this view, therefore, there are stricly speaking no Buddhas at all, though in practice sufficiently advanced bodhisattvas are called Buddhas.

According to the Gelugpa school, the main doctrinal school in the Tibetan tradition, Buddhahood, and even arhantship, can be attained only by understanding emptiness. However, many Tibetan teachers in other schools agree with the general teaching of East Asian Buddhism, that the ultimate reality is Buddha nature. These doctrines should not be taken too literally, as all schools of Buddhism agree with all other major religions that ultimate reality is beyond human concepts.

It should be noted that the Mahayana generally regards these detailed doctrines of the nature of Buddhas and bodhisattvas as less important than the compassionate motivation to help others. Someone who has this, even in the Theravada, would be recognized by most Mahayanists as a bodhisattva, and the Mahayana, in the sense the term is usually used in the West, i.e. denominationally, mainly applies the term to refer to level of spiritual motivation and practice:^[26] a bodhisattva, of whatever denomination, is Mahayana in the most important sense.

[edit] Practice

[edit] Devotion

Main articles: Refuge (Buddhism) and Three Jewels

Acknowledging the Four Noble Truths and making the first step in the Noble Eightfold Path requires taking refuge, as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's Three Jewels (Sanskrit: त्रिरत्न Triratna or रत्नत्रय Ratna-traya, Pali: तिरतन Tiratana).^[27] Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. The person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion.

The Three Jewels are:

• The Buddha (i.e., Awakened One). This is a title for those who attained Awakening similar to the Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the Tathāgata and Śākyamuni Buddha. The Buddha could also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma, and in this regard the Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its true form.
• The Dharma: The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). It can also (especially in Mahayana Buddhism) connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
• The Sangha: This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna (pali) — one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). According to some modern Buddhists, it also consists of laymen and laywomen, the caretakers of the monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who have not been ordained as monks or nuns.

According to the scriptures, The Buddha presented himself as a model and besought his followers to have faith (Sanskrit श्रद्धा śraddhā, Pāli saddhā) in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. The Dharma, i.e. the teaching of the Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The Saṅgha (Buddhist Order of monks) provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a being beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.

Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's karma. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the Noble Eightfold Path, although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra, also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma.

Buddhism regards faith as the normal starting point, expressed in and developed by devotion, which could also be regarded as a form of meditation. In Theravada, devotion is mainly to the historical Buddha, but Mahayana adds various Buddhas and bodhisattvas. The use of images dates from some centuries after the Buddha. The Jodo Shu regard devotion as the only path in these degenerate times, at least for most people, leading to rebirth in the Pure Land of the Buddha Amida (Amitabha). The Jodo Shinshu believe in salvation by faith alone. Some of their writings seem to imply that the Pure Land is Buddhahood.^[28] The Nichiren school's main practice is devotion to the Lotus Sutra.

[edit] Study

All major traditions recognize that reading the scriptures can be valuable,^[29] and only some Japanese schools do not extend this to studying doctrine as well. There is a great variation in emphasis among schools.

[edit] Morality

The five precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.

1. To refrain from taking life. (i.e. non-violence towards sentient life forms)

2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (i.e. not committing theft)

3. To refrain from sensual misconduct (abstinence from immoral sexual behavior)

4. To refrain from lying. (i.e. speaking truth always)

5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)

In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy.

The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:

6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon)

7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelery, going to shows, etc.

8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

In addition, Theravada has a detailed code for lay people given in the Singalovada Sutta, traditionally known as the lay vinaya. There is no Tibetan version of this text. There is a Chinese version, but East Asian Buddhism often leaves such matters to Confucianism.

Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. The Buddha established an order of male religious, usually referred to in English as monks. According to the scriptures, he subsequently established a subordinate order of nuns, though some scholars dispute the historicity of this, claiming the nuns were a later innovation.^[30] The order of nuns died out some centuries ago in Theravada and was never introduced to Tibet, but survives in East Asian Buddhism. The precise content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. Novice-monks use the ten precepts, which are the basic precepts for monastics.^{[citation needed]} In Theravada, lay women observing these precepts are often loosely called nuns.

In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for Bodhisattvas, where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged (see vegetarianism in Buddhism).^{[citation needed]} In Japan, this Vinaya has almost entirely displaced the original, so that there are only a few dozen Japanese monks and nuns in the sense understood in other Buddhist countries, though the clergy there, mostly married nowadays, are often referred to by those names.

[edit] Meditation

Most ordinary Buddhists practise little or no meditation in the narrower sense of purely mental exercises. However, if practices like devotional and other forms of chanting are counted as meditation then it is quite normal.

Samatha Meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana.

In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to jñāna (Pāli ñāṇa knowledge), prajñā (Pāli paññā pure understanding) and thus can lead to nirvāṇa (Pāli nibbāna).

What may be called "classical" Buddhist meditation consists of samatha and vipassana, with the emphasis progressively shifting from the former to the latter. This tradition is followed in Theravada, and, combined with other practices, in the Tibetan tradition and the Japanese Tendai school.

The Soto subschool of Japanese Zen emphasizes zazen, sitting meditation, sometimes called "just sitting". It tends to speak of this, not as a practice leading to enlightenment, but as a manifestation of the Buddha Nature present in all beings. The Rinzai subschool emphasizes koans, questions for which a logical answer is not expected. Perhaps the best-known example in the West is "What is the sound of one hand clapping?", invented by Hakuin a few centuries ago. In China, Korea, Vietnam and the Japanese Tendai school, Zen practices are combined with others. For example, in China one chants homage to Amitabha Buddha, following the Pure Land tradition, but treats it as a koan: "Who is chanting?"

The Tibetan tradition combines classical meditation with various tantric practices. The main ones are mantras, mandalas and divine-form visualizations, which are all found to some extent outside the Tibetan tradition as well, and sexual yoga and the Zen-like practices of Mahamudra and Dzogchen, which all seem to be peculiar to the Tibetan tradition.

[edit] Scriptures

Pali Canon
		Vinaya Pitaka
		Sutta- vibhanga Khandhaka Pari- vara
		Sutta Pitaka
		Digha Nikaya Majjhima Nikaya Samyutta Nikaya
		Anguttara Nikaya Khuddaka Nikaya
		Abhidhamma Pitaka
		Dhs. Vbh. Dhk. Pug. Kvu. Yamaka Patthana
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Main article: Tripitaka

Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canons of scripture are known in Sanskrit as the Tripitaka and in Pāli as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and referred originally, and in Theravada Pali Canon still do refer, to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

• The Vinaya Pitaka, containing disciplinary rules for the Sanghas of Buddhist monks and nuns, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
• The Sutta Pitaka contains the discourses attributed to the Buddha and his followers.
• The Abhidhamma Pitaka ("higher teaching") consists of more systematic, abstract material.

The Pali Canon is usually printed in about forty volumes.

In the East Asian and Tibetan traditions, the name Tripitaka is really nominal, as the texts are normally arranged differently. The Tibetan canon, the Kangyur, is classified as follows in the simplest scheme (some editions separate out further subdivisions).

• Vinaya: not the same as the Pali, but recognizably a different version of the same text
• Perfection of Wisdom
• Avatamsaka
• Ratnakuta
• Other sutras: most of these are, like the three collections above, Mahayana, but versions of a few suttas found in the Pali Canon are also included
• Tantra: regarded as the highest scriptures; versions of a few are found in the Pali Canon

The Kangyur is usually printed in about a hundred volumes.

In the East Asian tradition, the practice has always (from the tenth century) been to print collected editions of Buddhist literature, combining both ching (scripture) and lun (other texts). The arrangement of these editions seem not to separate the two very definitely, suggesting the distinction is regarded as less important in this tradition than in the others. These collections include a number of versions of the vinaya, together with versions of most of the Sutta Pitaka. The Mahayana sutras are largely the same as in the Kangyur, though each includes some not in the other. There are fewer tantras, and most editions simply classify them under sutras.

Buddhists traditionally believe that the texts of their canons contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravāda canon is known as the Pāli Canon after the language it was written in. The Mahāyāna sūtras are considered by Mahayanists to be the word of the Buddha, but supposedly either were transmitted in secret, or via lineages of mythical beings (such as the nāgas), or came directly from other Buddhas or bodhisattvas. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan translations.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. Other, closely-related scriptures to the Pāli suttas are known to the Mahayana as the āgamas.

Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pali canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali canon represents the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma — and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.

For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the exalted bodhisattva path.

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.

Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture.

[edit] Buddhist symbols

Main article: Buddhist symbolism

The eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism are:^{[citation needed]}

• the Parasol (Umbrella)
• the Golden Fish
• the Treasure Vase
• the Lotus
• the Conch Shell
• the Endless Knot
• the Victory Banner
• the Dharma wheel

[edit] Comparative study

Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion.

Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, dependent origination is considered by some to be Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the Middle way has allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history. ^{[citation needed]}

List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies

• Buddhism and Hinduism
• Buddhism and Eastern teaching (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
• God in Buddhism (Buddhism and monotheism)
• Christianity and Buddhism
• Buddhist philosophy (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
• Buddhist Ethics (Buddhism and ethics)
• Buddhism and science (Buddhism and science)
• Buddhism and psychology
• Jainism and Buddhism

[edit] See also

• Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana
• Buddhist terms and concepts
• List of Buddhist topics
• List of Buddhists

[edit] References

• Berzin, Alexander (November 2001). Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan. Berzin Archives.
• Cousins, L. S. (1996). "The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Series 3 (6.1): 57-63. 
• Davidson, Ronald M. (2003). Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231126190. 
• Gethin, Rupert (1998). Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289223-1. 
• Gombrich, Richard (ed.); Heinz Bechert (ed.) (1984). The World of Buddhism. Thames & Hudson. 
• Harvey, Peter (1990). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52-131333-3. 
• Lamotte, Étienne (trans. to French) (1976). Teaching of Vimalakirti, trans. Sara Boin, London: Pali Text Society, XCIII. ISBN 0710085400. 
• Skilton, Andrew (1997). A Concise History of Buddhism. Windhorse Publications. ISBN 0904766926. 
• Williams, Paul (1989). Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations. London: Routledge. 

[edit] Suggested Reading

• Armstrong, Karen (2001). Buddha. Penguin Books, 187. ISBN 0-14-303436-7. 
• Buswell, Robert E. (ed.) (2003). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028657189. 
• Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) (2003). The Illustrated Guide to World Religions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 1-84483-125-6. 
• Dhammananda, K. Sri, What Buddhists Believe. [Buddhist Missionary Society of Malaysia]. (2002)

• Dickson, John (2004). A Spectator’s Guide to World Religions. Blue Bottle Books. 
• Donath, Dorothy C. (1971). Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day. Julian Press. ISBN 0-07-017533-0. 
• Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola (2002). Mindfulness in Plain English. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-321-4.  Also available on-line: [1] [2] [3]
• Juergensmeyer, Mark (2006). The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions, Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195137989. 
• Lowenstein, Tom (1996). The Vision of the Buddha. Duncan Baird Publishers. ISBN 1-903296-91-9. 
• Kohn, Michael H. (trans.) (1991). The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Shambhala. ISBN 0-87773-520-4. 
• Nattier, Jan (2003). A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprccha). University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-8248-2607-8. 
• Robinson, Richard H., and Johnson, Willard L. (1982). The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction. Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-534-01027-X. 
• Sinha, H.P. (1993). Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ.. ISBN 81-208-2144-0. 
• Smith, Huston; Phillip Novak (2003). Buddhism: A Concise Introduction. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 978-0060730673. 
• Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2001). Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha (3rd ed., rev.). 
• Thich Nhat Hanh, The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, Broadway Books, 1974. ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
• Thurman, Robert A. F. (translator) (1976). Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-00601-3. 
• Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press, 1974. ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
• White, Kenneth, The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo, The Edwin Mellen Press, 2005. ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
• Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page. The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra. (Nirvana Publications 1999-2000). 
• Yin Shun, Yeung H. Wing (translator), The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master, Wisdom Publications, 1998. ISBN 0-86171-133-5.
• Wei, Wei Wu,"Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra", Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1960. [4]
• Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series/ Delhi/ Indian Books Centre

• Jewels of the Doctrine (Buddhist Stories of the Thirteenth Century)/ Ranjini/ Sri Satguru Publications

[edit] Notes

[edit] External links

• Access to Insight
• BuddhaNet
• Buddhist texts (English translations)