Women in Arab societies

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For the position of women in Islam and in the Muslim world, see Women and Islam.
Syrian Bedouin woman, 1893.
Syrian Bedouin woman, 1893.

Women in the Arab world have throughout history experienced discrimination and have been subject to restrictions of their freedoms and rights. Some of these practices are based on religious beliefs, but many of the limitations are cultural and emanate from tradition rather than religion. These main constraints that create an obstacle towards women's rights and liberties are reflected in laws dealing with criminal justice, economy, education and healthcare[1] .

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[edit] Arab women before Islam

Costumes of Arab women, fourth to sixth century.
Costumes of Arab women, fourth to sixth century.

In pre-Islamic Arabia, women's status varied widely according to laws and cultural norms of the tribes in which they lived. In the prosperous southern region of the Arabian Peninsula, for example, the religious edicts of Christianity, Judaism and Zoroastrianism held sway among the Sabians and Himyarites. In other places such as the city of Makkah (Mecca) -- where the prophet of Islam, Muhammad, was born -- a tribal set of rights was in place. This was also true amongst the Bedouin (desert dwellers), and this code varied from tribe to tribe. Thus there was no single definition of the roles played, and rights held, by women prior to the advent of Islam.

In some tribes, women were emancipated even in comparison with many of today's standards.[2] [3] There were instances where women held high positions of power and authority.

In other tribes, women were of low status. They were subordinate to their fathers, brothers, and husbands.[4]. In some instances, women were chattels, effectively property. A woman had no share in inheritance because she was regarded as unwise and incapable of effectively managing her inherited property. There were also patterns of homicidal abuse of women and girls, including instances of killing female infants considered to be a liability. In his book Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives, Glenn Hausfater details how Qais Bin Assem, a leader of the Tamim tribe, killed every daughter he had for fear of their capture (and his disgrace) in the inter-tribal wars that dominated Arabian society at that time. According to some scholars; during times of famine, especially, poorer families were likely to kill a daughter, regarding her as a burden on a starving family.[citation needed]

It is claimed by some Muslim writers and some scholars of Middle Eastern history that in pre-Islamic Arabia, women could not inherit land or wealth; holdings were usually considered the property of the tribe she was born or married in to. They claim Islam changed the very structure of the society and to a large degree unified the people, reforming and standardizing gender roles throughout the region. Some, however, disagree. [5]

[edit] Arab women after Islam

See also Women and Islam

A page from an Arabic manuscript from the 12th century, depicting a man playing the oud among women, (Hadith Bayad wa Riyad).
A page from an Arabic manuscript from the 12th century, depicting a man playing the oud among women, (Hadith Bayad wa Riyad).

Islam was introduced in the Arabian peninsula in the seventh century. According to the Qur'anic decrees, both men and women have the same duties and responsibilities in their worship of God. As the Qur'an states: "I will not suffer to be lost the work of any of you whether male or female. You proceed one from another".(Qur'an 2:195)

The Qur'an rejected the traditional and cultural practice of killing unwanted female children soon after birth. As it appears in (Qur'an 16:58-59),the religious message states: " "when news is brought to one of them, of (the birth of) a female (child), his face darkens, and he is filled with inward grief. With shame he hides himself from his people, because of the bad news he has had! shall he retain it (his face) (sufferance and) contempt, or bury it in the dust? Ah! what an evil (choice) they decide on!" The Islamic scholar William Montgomery Watt states:

It is true that Islam is still, in many ways, a man’s religion. But I think I’ve found evidence in some of the early sources that seems to show that Muhammad made things better for women. It appears that in some parts of Arabia, notably in Mecca, a matrilineal system was in the process of being replaced by a patrilineal one at the time of Muhammad. Growing prosperity caused by a shifting of trade routes was accompanied by a growth in individualism. Men were amassing considerable personal wealth and wanted to be sure that this would be inherited by their own actual sons, and not simply by an extended family of their sisters’ sons. This led to a deterioration in the rights of women. At the time Islam began, the conditions of women were terrible - they had no right to own property, were supposed to be the property of the man, and if the man died everything went to his sons. Muhammad improved things quite a lot. By instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce, he gave women certain basic safeguards. Set in such historical context the Prophet can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of women’s rights. [6]

[edit] Contemporary Arab world

Asmahan a prominent Arab singer and actress (1912-1944).
Asmahan a prominent Arab singer and actress (1912-1944).

[edit] Politics

Many Arab countries allow women to vote in national elections. Some countries granted the female franchise in their constitutions following independence, while some extended the franchise to women in later constitutional amendments [7] [8], Lebanon [9], Egypt [10], Algeria [11] and many others. Gulf States has recently seen the introduction of votes for women, including Kuwait[12] and Saudi Arabia, albeit only in local elections.

Arab women are under-represented in parliaments in Arab states, although they are gaining more equal representation as Arab states liberalise their political systems. In 2005, the International Parliamentary Union said that 6.5 per cent of MPs in the Arab world were women, compared with 3.5 per cent in 2000. In Tunisia, nearly 23 per cent of members of parliament were women. However, the Arab country with the largest parliament, Egypt, had only around four per cent female representation in parliament. [13]

In 2006, women in the Gulf Co-operation Council states achieved a significant breakthrough in terms of participating in parliamentary elections, but the success of female candidates varied across the region. In the UAE, women stood for election for the first time in the country's history. Although just one female candidate - from Abu Dhabi - was directly elected, the government appointed a further eight women to the 40-seat federal legislature, giving women a 22.5 per cent share of the seats, far higher than the world average of 17.0 per cent. [1] In Kuwait, women participated in elections for the first time, but none won seats. Bahrain elected its first and only female MP in 2006. [2]

The role of women in politics in Arab societies is largely determined by the will of these countries' leaderships to support female representation and cultural attitudes towards women's involvement in public life. Dr Rola Dashti, a female candidate in Kuwait's 2006 parliamentary elections, claimed that "the negative cultural and media attitude towards women in politics" was one of the main reasons why no women were elected. She also pointed to "ideological differences", with conservatives and extremist Islamists opposing female participation in political life and discouraging women from voting for a woman. She also cited malicious gossip, attacks on the banners and publications of female candidates, lack of training and corruption as barriers to electing female MPs. [3] In contrast, one of UAE's female MPs, Najla al Awadhi, claimed that "women's advancement is a national issue and we have a leadership that understands that and wants them to have their rights." [4]

[edit] Women's right to vote in the Arab world

Women were granted the right to vote on a universal and equal basis in Lebanon in 1952[14], Syria (to vote) in 1949 [15] (Restrictions or conditions lifted) in 1953 [16], Egypt in 1956[17], Tunisia in 1959 [18], Mauritania in 1961[19], Algeria in 1962 [20],Morocco in 1963 [21], Libya [22] and Sudan in 1964 [23],Yemen (Partly)in 1967 [24] (full right) in 1970 [25], Bahrain in 1973 [26] ,Jordan in 1974 [27],Iraq (Full right) 1980 [28] Oman (Partly) in 1994 and (Fully granted) 2003 [29],Kuwait in 2005 [30].

[edit] Education

The region of the Arab peninsula is characterized by gender inequality in literacy and education. Because of their relatively low educational level, female workers are challenged by a more professional men labor force [31]. Until recently, progress in women's education was slow and restricted.

[edit] Driving

Women have the right to drive in all Arab countries except Saudi Arabia. [32]

[edit] Traditional dress

See also: hijab and sartorial hijab

Costumes of women in the Arab world during the late nineteenth century.
Costumes of women in the Arab world during the late nineteenth century.

Adherence to traditional dress varies across Arab societies. Saudi Arabia is more traditional, while Egypt is less so. Women are required to wear abayas in only Saudi Arabia; this is enforced by the religious police. Some allege that this restricts their economic participation and other activities. [33] In Tunisia, the secular government has banned the use of the veil in its opposition to religious extremism. President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali has called the veil sectarian and foreign and has stressed the importance of traditional Tunisian dress as a symbol of national identity. [5] Islamic feminism counters both sorts of externally imposed dress codes.

In some countries, like Kuwait, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria and Egypt, the veil is not mandatory. However, in other places, all women, even non-Muslims, wear the abaya out of fear of mistreatment.[34]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ 'Challenging Inequality: Obstacles and Opportunities Towards Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa'
  2. ^ Islam and Women Dr. Younus Shaikh
  3. ^ Aspects of Pre-Islamic Arabian Society
  4. ^ 'The Status of Women in Islam'
  5. ^ [http://www.geocities.com/realitywithbite/arabwoman.htm Women in pre-Islamic Arabia]
  6. ^ Interview with Prof William Montgomery Watt
  7. ^ Legislative Section in the 1950' Constitution of Syria (in Arabic)
  8. ^ Legislative Section in the 1970' Constitution of Syria (in Arabic)
  9. ^ Item 21, Section 2 Chapter 1 of the Lebanese Constitution since 1926 (in Arabic)
  10. ^ Item 62 of the 1971' Egyptian Constitution (in Arabic) inherited from previous versions
  11. ^ Item 50 of the 1996' Algeria Constitution (in Arabic) inherited from previous versions
  12. ^ Kuwait parliament gives women the vote
  13. ^ BBC News - Arab women increase MP presence
  14. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/lebanon.htm
  15. ^ Women's Suffrage
  16. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/Syria.htm
  17. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/egypt.htm
  18. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/tunisia.htm
  19. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/mauritania.htm
  20. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/algeria.htm
  21. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/morocco.htm
  22. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/libya.htm
  23. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/sudan.htm
  24. ^ Women's Suffrage
  25. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/yemen.htm
  26. ^ Women's Suffrage
  27. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/jordan.htm
  28. ^ Women's Suffrage
  29. ^ http://www.alertnet.org/db/cp/oman.htm
  30. ^ Women's Suffrage
  31. ^ Moghadam, V. Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East United Nations University Press, 1993:4-5
  32. ^ People's Daily Online - Saudi princess, at Davos Forum: ' I'd let women drive'
  33. ^ cantonrep.com
  34. ^ http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/army/arabculture.pdf

[edit] External links