Turkification
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Turkification is a term used to describe a cultural change in which something or someone who is not a Turk becomes one, voluntarily or by force. It can be used in contexts in connection with Albanians, Arabs, Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks, Jews, Roma, various Slavic peoples (Bosniaks, Bulgarians), Iranian peoples (mainly Kurds), as well as Lazs and various ethnicities of the Black Sea basin and the North Caucasus. The use of the term does not assert a denial of the existence of individuals who feel pride or are comfortable in their Turkishness, nor a questioning of their identity.
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[edit] Appearance of Turks in Anatolia
Anatolia was home to many different peoples in ancient times, including the Carians, Lydians, Lycians, Cappadocians, Cilicians, and scores of others. Hellenization gradually caused many of these peoples to abandon their own languages in favor of Greek, especially in cities and along the western and southern coasts, a process reinforced by Romanization. Nevertheless, in the north and east, especially in rural areas, many of the native languages continued to survive.[1] Even by the eleventh century, when Turkish invaders first appeared, "Greek culture was little more than a veneer so far as the mass of the people were concerned."[2] Especially along the frontiers, the Byzantines persecuted local populations for heretical religious beliefs, causing these areas to have little sympathy for Greek culture.[3] Byzantine authorities routinely conducted large-scale population transfers in an effort to impose religious uniformity and the Greek language. They were particularly keen to assimilate the large Armenian population. To that end, in the eleventh century, the Armenian nobility were removed from their lands and resettled throughout western Anatolia. An unintended consequence of this resettlement was the loss of local military leadership along the eastern frontier, opening the path for the inroads of Turkish invaders.[4]
Beginning in the eleventh century, war with Turkish invaders led to the deaths of many in the native population, while others were enslaved and removed.[5] As areas became depopulated, Turkic nomads moved in with their herds.[6] Once an area had been conquered, and hostilities had ceased, agricultural villagers may have felt little inconvenience with the arrival of these pastoralists, since they occupied different ecological zones within the same territory.[7] Turkic pastoralists, however, made up only a small minority of the population, and the gradual Turkification of Anatolia was due to the conversion of Christians to Islam, and their adoption of the Turkish language. The reasons for this conversion were first, the weak hold Greek culture had on much of the population, and second, the desire by the conquered population to "retain its property or else to avoid being at a disadvantage in other ways."[8] One mark of the progress of Turkification was that by the 1330s, place names in Anatolia had changed from Greek to Turkish.[9]
[edit] The imprecise meaning of Türk
The word Türk was a derogatory term until the late 19th century, referring to backwards Anatolian nomads or peasants. The Ottoman elite identified themselves as Sunni Muslims and Ottomans, never as Turks.[10] In the late 19th century, as European ideas of nationalism were adopted by the Ottoman elite, and as it became clear that the Turkish-speakers of Anatolia were the most loyal supporters of Ottoman rule, the term Türk took on a much more positive connotation.[11]
During Ottoman times, the millet system defined communities on a religious basis, and a residue of this remains in that Turkish villagers will commonly consider as Turks only those who profess the Sunni faith, and will consider Turkish-speaking Jews, Christians, or even Alevi Muslims to be non-Turks.[12] On the other hand, Kurdish-speaking or Arabic-speaking Sunnis of eastern Anatolia are often considered to be Turks.[13] The imprecision of the appelation Türk can also be seen with other ethnic names, such as Kürt, which is often applied by western Anatolians to anyone east of Adana, even those who speak only Turkish.[14] Thus, the category Türk, like other ethnic categories popularly used in Turkey, does not have a uniform usage.
In recent years, centrist Turkish politicians have attempted to redefine this category in a more multi-cultural way, emphasizing that a Türk is anyone who is a citizen of the Republic of Turkey.[15]
[edit] Kurds
During the 1930s and 1940s, the Turkish government had statistically categorized Kurds "Mountain Turks".[16] According to CNN TÜRK, today there are media events as well as privately-sponsored education in the Kurdish language, although the general interest shown is rather limited.[17]
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ (Mitchell 1993: 172-176)
- ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 481)
- ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 481)
- ^ (Charnis 1961)
- ^ (Vryonis 1971: 172)
- ^ (Vryonis 1971: 184-194)
- ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 479-480)
- ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 481-483)
- ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 485)
- ^ (Kushner 1997: 219; Meeker 1971: 322)
- ^ (Kushner 1997: 220-221)
- ^ (Meeker 1971: 322)
- ^ (Meeker 1971: 323)
- ^ (Meeker 1971: 322)
- ^ (Kushner 1997: 230)
- ^ Turkey - Linguistic and Ethnic Groups - U.S. Library of Congress
- ^ Kurdish courses close one after the other because of lack of interest, July 2005
[edit] Sources
- Blake, Robert P., and William L. Langer. 1932. “The Rise of the Ottoman Turks and its Historical Background.” The American Historical Review 37:468-505.
- Charanis, Peter. 1961. "The Transfer of Population as a Policy in the Byzantine Empire." Comparative Studies in Society and History 3:140-154.
- Kushner, David. 1997. “Self-Perception and Identity in Contemporary Turkey.” Journal of Contemporary History 32:219-233.
- Meeker, M. E. 1971. “The Black Sea Turks: Some Aspects of Their Ethnic and Cultural Background.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 2:318-345.
- Mitchell, Stephen. 1993. Anatolia: land, men and gods in Asia Minor. Vol. 1, The Celts, and the impact of Roman rule. Clarendon Press.
- Vryonis, Speros. 1971. The decline of medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the process of Islamization from the eleventh through the fifteenth century. University of California Press.
