Mongol bow
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Mongol bows at an archery competition during Naadam[1] |
The Mongol bow is a recurved composite bow used by the Mongols and renowned for its power, accuracy and range. Mongol bows are still used in Siberia and were common in the early 20th century.
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[edit] Construction
This composite bow is usually constructed from birch or bamboo wood, ibex horns and animal tendons bound together with an adhesive made from animal hide and fish bladder.[2] A wrapper of birch bark helped to protect it mechanically and from moisture. Less traditionally leather was used with ash or yew wood. The bow was decorated with engraving or with falcon or eagle feathers.
[edit] Comparison
The principal difference between the Mongol bow and the Hungarian bow is the presence of a "string run" (or "string bridge") - an attachment of horn or wood used to hold the string a little further apart from the bow's limbs. This attachment aids the archer by increasing the draw weight in the early stages of the draw, thus slightly increasing the total energy stored by the draw and available to the arrow. String bridges are not attested at the time of the Mongol empire, appearing in Chinese art during the later Manchu Qing dynasty.[3] The armies of Genghis Khan would have used the composite bows typical of their various nationalities at the time.
[edit] Frame
The backbone of the bow is a wooden frame, typically birch because it was resilient and easily available. The total length of the frame was typically 150-160 cm (59-63 in), unstrung. It appears as a semi-circle, but when strung its limbs are bent inward.
After the point of string attachment, the ends are bent away from the archer thereby forming a double curve. This double curve delivers extra acceleration and velocity to arrows. Between these bends the frame is covered with long and flat pieces of horn or bone. This adds power to the "snap" of the frame, because these materials have a high compression strength. These hard layers cover the whole area called "the belly" (the side of the bow facing towards the archer) from grip to the limbs.
The exact arrangement of bone, wood and sinew elements varied from region to region. The bone elements are a minor part of the construction and have been ornaments or talismans.
[edit] Glue and sinew
A layer of specially prepared birch bark was applied to protect the bow against moisture. Sinew, typically taken from deer, moose or other game animals , provides additional tensile strength to the "back" of the bow (the side of the bow facing away from the archer). Domestic animal tendons were also used, but materials taken from wild animals like deer, moose and mountain sheep were considered strongest and best. A layer of ungulate horn is used on the belly of the bow. Sinew stores energy well when stretched, as does horn when compressed.
The traditional substance used for the curing of both leather and bows was fishglue. Fish glue, used for moisture protection, was readily extracted from the bladders of freshwater fish, by soaking in hot water to remove the protein, and then boiling the resultant soup for an extended time.
The usual procedure employed in the production of a traditional Mongolian bow is as follows:
- The wooden frame is cured,
- The horns and/or bone to be used are boiled to soften them then attached to the frame.
- The tendons have to be dried, then crushed to form a mass of loose fibres.
- The fibres are soaked with fish glue and applied to the back of the bow. The thickness and amount of sinew, applied is done in a multi-stage process with some days in between. Too thin a layer makes the bow weaker, and too thick makes it stiff. The layer of sinew could be as thick as a human finger before drying.
- All parts are secured in place with fish glue. The horns and wooden sections, that are glued together are first grooved with a toothed tool to increase the gluing surface and the strength of the bond.
- The final step is the application of protective birch bark layers, which are first boiled until soft, to ensuring a proper fit before being glued to the finished bow.
- The bow is then wrapped tightly in ropes and placed to dry and harden in room temperature for one year or more for strength and durability.
The bow is usually stored in a leather case for protection when not in use.
[edit] String
The bow strings are made from animal hide. The fat is removed and the hide is stretched out and twisted. As a result of this it will not stretch any further, but remain taut. While the skin of many fur-bearing animals could be used, horse skin is the preferred choice for its suppleness in the low winter temperatures of Central Asia. Intestines of animals as string material could also be used but such strings are not water resistant and thus only suited for use in dry and hot weather. Silk and cotton, and mixes of these, have also been used.
To string the bow, the archer could sit, and using both feet to press against the bow bend the limbs to attach the string. Another technique while standing upright is to keep the bow bent under one leg while the other leg holds the outer end. On horseback, the Mongol archer routinely strung the bow by placing one end of the bow between the foot and the stirrup while the arms pressed against the bow.
[edit] Arrows
Arrows are typically constructed of birch wood. The normal length of an arrow is between 80 and 100 cm (31 and 39 in), and the shaft's diameter is around 10 mm (0.4 in).
For fletching arrows, crane's tail feathers are favoured, but tail feathers of other birds are usable as well. Eagle feathers make a particularly unusual arrow, but eagles are rare. Feathers taken from the wings are said to flow less smoothly through the air, so if given the choice tail feathers are picked. The Mongols characteristically paid close attention to the minutest of details. The placement of the fletchings in relation to their size, and what part of the bird they were taken from, is of great importance for correct rotation and good balance in the air. Consequently these factors are painstakingly considered when making arrows after the Old Mongol standard.
The arrowheads, or points, can vary depending on the purpose. Wide metal blades are used for hunting big game and were used in war, while bone and wooden points are preferred for hunting birds and small animals. The high impact of this bow ensures that even a small bone point can be lethal when hitting the body of a smaller animal or a bird. In addition to these kinds of arrows, whistling arrows are useful during hunting, because the effect on animals of an arrow whistling away high above the ground is often to make it stop, curious to see what is in the air. This gives the hunter time to launch a second arrow, this time with a game head to kill the animal. The whistling arrows are made by inserting an arrowhead of bone in which air channels have been created. When shot, such arrowheads make a very audible sound through the air.
[edit] Range
Asian bows, such as the Mongol bow and especially the Turkish bow had the longest range for ranged weapons until the invention of the modern breech-loading firearms in the early 20th Century.[4] Estimates for the Mongol bow give it a draw force comparable to the English longbow (41-81 kg / 90-180 lb) of about 45-70 kg (100-160 lb). However, due to a better design, the mongol bow has a range of 290-320 m (320-350 yards) or more,[5] a range longer than that of the longbow (225 m / 250 yards). A more contemporary review by Hildinger suggests that it was only accurate at up to 75 m (80 yards) when shot from horseback, but "shooting in arcade" (at 45 degrees) allowed for much greater ranges.[6] It is important to note that modern champion archers maintain that you cannot 'guarantee' a hit on an individual target at more than 80 yards (73 m) with any bow whatsoever, but could always hit an army of thousands of individuals.
[edit] Traditional usage by Mongols
The Mongolian tradition of archery is attested by an inscription on a stone stele that was found near Nerchinsk in Siberia: "While Chinggis Khan was holding an assembly of Mongolian dignitaries, after his conquest of Sartaul (East Turkestan), Yesüngge (the son of Chinggis Khan's brother) shot a target at 335 alds (536 m)."
Another example is given in the historic novel "Khökh Sudar" written by Injinashi, the Mongolian philosopher, historian and writer: he describes the competition amongst all Mongolian civil military men in about 1194-1195. Dzulgetii, a 16-year-old man from Dzurgen Aimag (province), and 4 other archers each hit the target three times from a distance of 500 bows (1 bow = at least 1 metre). Furthermore, the bow, in Mongol Culture, played a large part in the Mongol coming of age ceremony. After a Mongol boy brings down his first kill in a hunting expedition, the fat and flesh of the kill, is rubbed on his thumbs. This ritual is to ensure that the boys would always be fortunate hunters, and that their arrows would always fly true.
Even today, archery with traditional composite bows is part of Naadam, the annual festival of the three virile sports (Wrestling, Horseriding, Archery).
[edit] Military use
The bows were routinely employed by Mongol horse archers. They would typically carry two, one for long-range and the other for closer targets. The bows would be built with different pull forces, a stronger pull force, for a longer distance bow, and a shorter pull force for a shorter ranged bow. As such, the pull force of a Mongolian bow could vary from 100 N to 160 N, depending on the purpose for which the bow was designed. These were complemented by the archer carrying two quivers carrying different types of arrows - armour-piercing heavy arrowheads of tempered steel, incendiary arrows, whistling arrows for signaling as well as ordinary arrows with adjusted arrowheads and shaft lengths for more typical ranges. Usually, one quiver of arrows would be placed within quick reach of the horseman, while the other would be sealed, to protect it from the elements.
[edit] Shooting technique
The technique used for shooting is known as the "Mongolian release." The Mongols, if right-handed, keep their bow in the left hand, pushing it forward as the right arm pulled the string all the way back to behind the ear. With the left arm fully extended, they prepare to release. However, because of the power and draw force required of the bow, a special technique to hold the string is used. During the drawing of the bow and before the arrow is released the string is held by the thumb, since this is the strongest finger and the thumb is supported by the index finger curling around atop the outermost joint, at the base of the nail. The other fingers are also curled, forming a fist. The thumb is usually protected by a thumb ring of leather, agate, jade, metal, bone, or other material.
Mongolian soldiers trained to shoot while riding on horseback, and with deadly accuracy. This was done by skilfully timing the shots to the moment when the hooves of the horse were in mid-air, so as to avoid disturbing the aim when they hit the ground.
[edit] Tactics
- See also: Medieval warfare and Mongol military tactics and organization
Medieval Mongol battle tactics were similar to Parthian and Turkish methods of maintaining distance, shooting, and manoeuvring: this included the ability of the archers to shoot accurately while at a gallop, and while facing backwards on the horse.[7][8] They generally approached in a loose crescent formation typically used in the steppes and plains, with each flank attempting to encircle the enemy. If encirclement was not possible, they would employ the mangudai or feigned retreat ruse.[7][8] The army was divided into units called toumens and was trailed by spare horses. Each soldier had as many as three or even four spare mounts.[7] Mongol horses tended to be closer to the size of ponies, and able to survive by grazing in the wild.[7] Flaming arrows were also employed by Mongol troops, alongside coloured lanterns for communication:[8] lastly, whistling arrows were used to create terror in the enemy ranks.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ CSEN Home Page. Center for the Study of Eurasian Nomads. Retrieved on 2008-03-04.
- ^ John C Halpin, Halpin C Halpin, Primer on Composite Materials Analysis, CRC Press, Apr 15, 1992, ISBN 0-87762-754-1
- ^ Archery Traditions of Asia. Stephen Selby. Publisher: Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence 2003. ISBN/Code: 9627039470
- ^ Asian/Turkish Bow Construction FAQ: The Composite Turkish Bow. University of Edinburgh. Retrieved on 2008-03-04.
- ^ J. Chambers, The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongolian Invasion of Europe,(New York: Atheneum), 1979, pg. 57
- ^ E. Hildinger, Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to 1700 A.D., Sarpedon Publishers, 1997, ISBN 978-1885119438, pg. 27-31
- ^ a b c d E Hildinger,Story of Mongols, Branden Books, Mar 1, 1996, ISBN 0-8283-2017-9 pg. 26
- ^ a b c Edwards, J. A. Sean/Swarming on the Battlefield: Past, Present, and Future, Rand Corporation, Mar 25, 2000, ISBN 0-8330-2779-4 pg.29
