Greece Runestones

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Main article: Varangian Runestones

Runestones that mention expeditions outside of Scandinavia
Viking Runestones England Runestones Hakon Jarl Runestones Varangian Runestones Baltic expeditions runestones Greece Runestones Italy Runestones Ingvar Runestones Serkland Runestones

The Greece Runestones comprise around 30 runestones containing information related to voyages made by Scandinavians to "Greece", which refers to the Byzantine Empire (ON.: Grikkland, Grikk(i)aR), during the Viking Age and until the early 12th century AD. Engraved in the Old Norse language with the Younger Futhark script, all of the Greece Runestones are found in modern-day Sweden, with the majority residing in Uppland (18 runestones) and Södermanland (7 runestones). The only group of runestones comparable in number to the Greece Runestones are those that mention England, the England Runestones.^[1]

The primary reason for the creation of the relatively large number of inscriptions that refer to Greece was that Greece was home to the illustrious Varangian Guard. Stationed in Constantinople, which the Scandinavians referred to as Miklagarðr (the "Great City"), the Guard represented an irresistible attraction to young, adventurous Scandinavians of the sort that had composed it since its creation in the late 10th century. Contrary to the popular stereotype of Viking warriors, the individuals who served in the Varangian Guard were not uncouth ruffians, but were instead usually fit and well-raised young men skilled in the use of weapons — which explains the welcome they received as the elite troops of the Byzantine Emperor, as well as why the rulers of Kievan Rus' requested young Scandinavian warriors when under threat of attack.^[2]

Runestones were usually raised in memory of those who did not return from Viking expeditions, and not as tributes to those who came back,^[3] and most of the men for whom the stones were raised died in the service of the Emperor. However, some runestones tell of men who returned to enjoy their increased wealth and social status, such as U 112, commissioned by a former captain of the Guard, Ragnvaldr.^[4] The inscriptions of the Greece Runestones, however, are not the only runic inscriptions that commemorate members of the Varangian Guard: the Italy Runestones, which mention warriors who died in the Catapanate of Italy, probably in battles such as that of Cannae in 1018, and the Piraeus Lion.

Below follows a presentation of the Greece Runestones based on information collected from the Rundata project, organized according to location. The transcriptions from runic inscriptions into standardized Old Norse are in the Swedish and Danish dialect to facilitate comparison with the inscriptions, while the English translation provided by Rundata give the names in standard dialect (the Icelandic and Norwegian dialect).

[edit] Uppland

There are as many as 16 runestones in Uppland that relate of men who travelled to Greece, most of whom died there.

[edit] U 73

Runestone U 73 was probably to explain the order of inheritance from two men who died as Varangians.^[5] It is the style Pr3^[6] which is part of the more general urnes style.

The stone, which is in greyish granite and measures 2 m in height and 1.2 m in width, is raised on a slope some 100 m north of the farm Hägerstalund, formerly Hansta(lund). The stone was discovered by Johan Peringskiöld during the national search for historic monuments in the late 17th century. The stone shares the same message as U 72 together with which it once formed a monument,^[7] but U 72 was moved to Skansen in 1896.^[8]

The latter stone relates that "these stones" were raised by Gerðarr and Jörundr in memory Ernmundr and Ingimundr. Consequently, U 73's phrase "Inga's sons" and "they died in Greece" refer to Ernmundr and Ingimundr.^[7]

Ernmundr and Ingimundr had inherited their father, but they departed for Byzantine Empire and died there as Varangians. As they had not fathered any children, their mother Inga inherited their property, but when she died, her brothers Gerðarr and Jörundr came to inherit her. These two brothers then raised the two memorials in honour of their nephews, which probably was due to the nephews having distinguished themselves in the South, but it may also be in gratitude for wealth gathered by the nephews overseas. At the same time, the monument served to document how the property had passed from one clan to another.^[7][9]

The runemaster has been identified as Visäte.^[6]

Latin transliteration:

' þisun ' merki ' iru ' gar ' eftR ' suni ' ikur ' hon kam ' þeira × at arfi ' in þeir × brþr * kamu hnaa : at ' arfi × kiaþar b'reþr ' þir to i kirikium

Old Norse transcription:

Þessun mærki æRu gar æftiR syni InguR. Hon kvam þæiRa at arfi, en þæiR brøðr kvamu hænnaR at arfi, Gærðarr brøðr. ÞæiR dou i Grikkium.

English translation:

"These landmarks are made in memory of Inga's sons. She came to inherit from them, but these brothers — Gerðarr and his brothers — came to inherit from her. They died in Greece."^[6]

[edit] U 104

Runestone U 104 was first documented by Johannes Bureus in 1594.^[10] It was donated as one of a pair to the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford in 1687 upon the request of king James II of England to king Charles XI of Sweden asking for two runestones to add to the Oxford University collection.^[11] The illustration (right) shows the cast copy in concrete located in the external gate of the church of Ed. It is in the refined Urnes (Pr5) style. It was raised by Þorsteinn in memory of his father Sveinn and his brother Þórir, both of whom went to Greece, and lastly in memory of his mother.

The stone is signed by Öpir, the most popular and productive of the old runemasters, whose Old Norse is notable for its unorthodox use of the haglaz rune (ᚼ), as in hut for Old Norse út ("out").^[12] The erratic use of the h-phoneme is a dialect trait that has survived and is still characteristic for the modern Swedish dialect of Roslagen, one of the regions where Öpir was active.^[12]

Latin transliteration:

' þorstin ' lit × kera ' merki ' ftiR ' suin ' faþur ' sin ' uk ' ftiR ' þori ' (b)roþur ' sin ' þiR ' huaru ' hut ' til ' k--ika ' (u)(k) ' iftiR ' inkiþuru ' moþur ' sin ' ybiR risti '

Old Norse transcription:

Þorstæinn let gæra mærki æftiR Svæin, faður sinn, ok æftiR Þori, broður sinn, þæiR vaRu ut til G[r]ikkia, ok æftiR Ingiþoru, moður sina. ØpiR risti.

English translation:

"Þorsteinn had the landmark made in memory of Sveinn, his father, and in memory of Þórir, his brother. They were abroad in Greece. And in memory of Ingiþóra, his mother. Œpir carved."^[13]

[edit] U 112

Runestone U 112, a large boulder measuring 18 metres in circumference, is located on a wooded path named Kyrkstigen ("church path") in Ed.^[14][15] It has been known to scholars since Johannes Bureus' first runological expedition in 1594, and it dates to the mid-11th century.^[14][16]

The boulder bears runic inscriptions on two of its sides, referred to as U 112 A and B.^[15] The linguistic significance of the inscriptions lies in the use of the haglaz (ᚼ) rune to denote the fricative /gh/ phoneme (as in Ragnvaldr) — something which would become common after the close of the Viking Age.^[17] The inscription also includes some dotted runes, and the ansuz (ᚬ) rune is used for the /o/ phoneme.^[17]

The inscriptions are in the mid-Urnes style (Pr4),^[15] and they were commissioned by a former captain of the Varangian Guard named Ragnvaldr in memory of his mother as well as in his own honour.^[14][15] Very few could boast of returning home with the honour of having been the captain of the Varangian Guard, and the name Ragnvaldr shows that he belonged to the higher echelons of Old Norse society, and that he may have been a relative of the ruling dynasty.^{[17][18][19][16]}

Ragnvald's maternal grandfather, Ónæmr, is mentioned on two additional runestones in Uppland, U 328 and U 336.^[20] Runestone U 328 relates that Ragnvaldr had two aunts, Gyríðr and Guðlaug, and runestone U 336 adds that Ulf of Borresta, who received three Danegelds in England, was Ónæm's paternal nephew and thus Ragnvald's first cousin.^[20] He was probably the same Ragnvaldr whose death is related in the Hargs bro runic inscriptions, which would also connect him to Estrid and the wealthy Jarlabanke clan.^[21]

Considering Ragnvald's background, it is not surprising that he rose to become an officer of the Varangian Guard: he was a chieftain who was wealthy and who brought many ambitious soldiers to Greece.^[22]

Latin transliteration:

A * rahnualtr * lit * rista * runar * efR * fastui * moþur * sina * onems * totR * to i * aiþi * kuþ hialbi * ant * hena *

B runa * rista * lit * rahnualtr * huar a × griklanti * uas * lis * forunki *

Old Norse transcription:

A Ragnvaldr let rista runaR æftiR Fastvi, moður sina, Onæms dottiR, do i Æiði. Guð hialpi and hænnaR.

B RunaR rista let Ragnvaldr. VaR a Grikklandi, vas liðs forungi.

English translation:

A "Ragnvaldr had the runes carved in memory of Fastvé, his mother, Ónæmr's daughter, (who) died in Eið. May God help her spirit."

B "Ragnvaldr had the runes carved; (he) was in Greece, was commander of the retinue."^[23]

[edit] U 136

Main article: Broby bro Runestones

Runestone U 136 is in the Urnes (Pr2) style,^[24] and it once formed a monument together with U 135.^[25]

In 1857, Richard Dybeck noted that it had been discovered in the soil five years earlier. A small part of it had stuck up above the soil and when the landowner was tilling the land and discovered it, he had it raised again on the same spot. Although, the landowner was careful when raising the stone, some pieces were accidentally chipped away and the upper parts of some runes were lost.^[26]

The stone was originally raised by a wealthy lady named Estrid in memory of her husband Eysteinn, one of the first Swedes to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem.^[27] It is one of two Jarlabanke Runestones that mention travellers abroad, the other being U140, below.

Latin transliteration:

× astriþr × la(t) + raisa × staina × þasa × [a]t austain × buta sin × is × suti × iursalir auk antaþis ub i × kirkum

Old Norse transcription:

Æstriðr let ræisa stæina þessa at Øystæin, bonda sinn, es sotti IorsaliR ok ændaðis upp i Grikkium.

English translation:

"Ástríðr had these stones raised in memory of Eysteinn, her husbandman, who attacked Jerusalem and met his end in Greece."^[24]

[edit] U 140

Main article: Broby bro Runestones

Runestone U 140 is located in Broby, near the Broby bro Runestones and U 150.

The granite stone was discovered in a fragmented state among the foundations of a small building by Richard Dybeck, who searched without success for the remaining parts. It was moved to the road in 1930.^[28] It is one of two Jarlabanke Runestones that mention men who travelled abroad (the other being U 136, above), though the identity of the traveller mentioned in the fragment remains unknown.

Latin transliteration:

× ...la×b(a)... ... han : entaþis * i kirikium

Old Norse transcription:

[Iar]laba[nki] ... Hann ændaðis i Grikkium.

English translation:

"Jarlabanki ... He met his end in Greece."^[29]

[edit] U 201

Runestone U 201, located at the church of Angarn, is of the Ringerike (Pr1) type. It was raised by four men in memory of their father who died in Greece.

Latin transliteration:

* þiagn * uk * kutirfR * uk * sunatr * uk * þurulf * þiR * litu * risa * stin * þina * iftiR * tuka * faþur * sin * on * furs * ut i * krikum * kuþ * ialbi ot ans * ot * uk * salu

Old Norse transcription:

Þiagn ok GautdiarfR(?) ok Sunnhvatr(?) ok ÞorulfR þæiR letu ræisa stæin þenna æftiR Toka, faður sinn. Hann fors ut i Grikkium. Guð hialpi and hans, and ok salu.

English translation:

"Þegn and Gautdjarfr(?) and Sunnhvatr(?) and Þórulfr, they had this stone raised in memory of Tóki, their father. He perished abroad in Greece. May God help his spirit, spirit and soul."^[30]

[edit] U 270

Runestone U 270, originally located in Smedby near Vallentuna, disappeared after its inscription was recorded. Uncertainty remains regarding the correct interpretation of the inscription, but the stone was apparently raised in memory of a father (Ketil) who travelled to Greece.^[31]

Latin transliteration:

[ikiþur- isina... ...-- * stiu nuk * at * kiatilu... faþur * sin krikfarn * k...]

Old Norse transcription:

Ingiþor[a] ... ... <stiu> ok at Kætil..., faður sinn, Grikkfara(?) ...

English translation:

"Ingiþóra ... ... and in memory of Ketill-... her father, (a) traveller to Greece(?) ..."^[32]

[edit] U 358

Runestone U 358, located at the church of Skepptuna, is in the RAK style. It was raised by a father, Folkmarr, in memory of his son, Folkbjörn, who died "among the Greeks". The text adds "also", implying that Folkbjörn was one of several local men known to Folkmarr who never returned from Greece.

Latin transliteration:

fulkmar × lit × risa × stin × þina × iftiR × fulkbiarn × sun × sin × saR × itaþis × uk miþ krkum × kuþ × ialbi × ans × ot uk salu

Old Norse transcription:

Folkmarr let ræisa stæin þenna æftiR Folkbiorn, sun sinn. SaR ændaðis ok með Grikkium. Guð hialpi hans and ok salu.

English translation:

"Folkmarr had this stone raised in memory of Folkbjörn, his son. He also met his end among the Greeks. May God help his spirit and soul."^[33]

[edit] U 374

Runestone U 374 is located in Örby. Its engravings have been completely destroyed, but scholars were able to document the inscription beforehand.

Latin transliteration:

[... litu ' rita : stain þino * iftiR * o-hu... ...an hon fil o kriklontr kuþ hi-lbi sal...]

Old Norse transcription:

... letu retta stæin þenna æftiR ... ... Hann fell a Grikklandi. Guð hi[a]lpi sal[u].

English translation:

"... had this stone erected in memory of ... ... He fell in Greece. May God help (his) soul."^[34]

[edit] U 431

Runestone U 431, originally located in Åshusby, presently resides in the atrium of the church of Norrsunda. It is in the Urnes (Pr2) style, and was raised by a father and mother, Tófa and Hemingr, in memory of their son, Gunnarr, who died "among the Greeks".

Latin transliteration:

tufa auk hominkr litu rita stin þino ' abtiR kunor sun sin ' in -- hon u(a)R ta(u)-(r) miR krikium ut ' kuþ hialbi hons| |salu| |uk| |kuþs m--(i)(R)

Old Norse transcription:

Tofa ok HæmingR letu retta stæin þenna æftiR Gunnar, sun sinn. En ... hann vaR dau[ð]r meðr Grikkium ut. Guð hialpi hans salu ok Guðs m[oð]iR.

English translation:

"Tófa and Hemingr had this stone erected in memory of Gunnarr, their son, and ... He died abroad among the Greeks. May God and God's mother help his soul."^[35]

[edit] U 446

Runestone U 446, originally found in Droppsta, has since disappeared. Its Urnes style is attributed to either Pr3 or Pr4. The only secure information provided by the inscription is that someone "died in Greece". The runes isifara have been interpreted as æist-fari which means "traveller to Estonia", but they are left as undeciphered by the Rundata project.^[36][37]

Latin transliteration:

[isifara * auk * ...r * sin * hon tu i krikum]

Old Norse transcription:

<isifara> ok ... sinn. Hann do i Grikkium.

English translation:

"<isifara> and ... their. He died in Greece."^[38]

[edit] U 518

Runestone U 518, located in Västra Ledinge, is in RAK style. It was raised by a man and a woman in memory of three men, probably their sons. Two of the men died in Greece, while a third one, Freygeirr, died off the nearby island of Selaön (silu).^[15] Another interpretation is that silu refers to the Estonian island Ösel.^[39]

Latin transliteration:

þurkir × uk × suin × þu litu × risa × stin × þina × iftiR × urmiR × uk × urmulf × uk × frikiR × on × etaþis × i silu × nur × ian þiR antriR × ut i × krikum × kuþ ihlbi --R(a) ot × uk salu

Old Norse transcription:

Þorgærðr ok Svæinn þau letu ræisa stæin þenna æftiR OrmæiR ok Ormulf ok FrøygæiR. Hann ændaðis i Silu nor en þæiR andriR ut i Grikkium. Guð hialpi [þæi]Ra and ok salu.

English translation:

"Þorgerðr and Sveinn, they had this stone raised in memory of Ormgeirr and Ormulfr and Freygeirr. He met his end in the sound of Sila (Selaön), and the others abroad in Greece. May God help their spirits and souls."^[40]

[edit] U 540

Runestone U 540, located at the church of Husby-Sjuhundra, is in the mid-Urnes (Pr4) style. Part of the text has been lost, but it appears that the stone was raised by several members of a family in memory of a son who died in Greece. The name of the deceased is missing, but it is related that Eiríkr, Hákon and Ingvarr raised the runestone U 513 together with a brother named Önundr.

One theory, proposed by Braun who dates the stone to the 1030s, is based on the runestones U 513, U 540, Sö 179 and Sö 279, and holds the grieving Ingvar to be the same person as Ingvar the Far-Travelled, the son of the Swedish king Emund the Old.^[16][41] Braun notes that the stones were raised at a Husby, a royal residence.^[42] Önundr would be Anund Gårdske, who was raised in Russia, while Eirík would be one of the two pretenders named Eric, and Hákon would be Haakon the Red.^[42]

Latin transliteration:

airikr ' auk hokun ' auk inkuar aukk rahn[ilt]r ' þou h--... ... ...-R ' -na hon uarþ [tau]þ(r) [a] kriklati ' kuþ hialbi hons| |salu| |uk| |kuþs muþi(R)

Old Norse transcription:

ÆirikR ok Hakon ok Ingvarr ok Ragnhildr þau ... ... ... ... Hann varð dauðr a Grikklandi. Guð hialpi hans salu ok Guðs moðiR.

English translation:

"Eiríkr and Hákon and Ingvarr and Ragnhildr, they ... ... ... ... He died in Greece. May God and God's mother help his soul."^[43]

[edit] U 792

Runestone U 792, found in Ulunda, is in the Fp style. It was raised in memory of a man (probably Haursi) by his son, Kárr, and his brother-in-law. Haursi had returned from Greece a wealthy man, which left his son heir to a fortune.^[5]

The stone was raised together with a second runestone, with one on each side of the Eriksgata where the road passed a ford.^[44] The Eriksgata was the path that newly elected Swedish kings passed when they toured the country in order to be accepted by the local assemblies.^[44]

Latin transliteration:

kar lit * risa * stin * þtina * at * mursa * faþur * sin * auk * kabi * at * mah sin * fu- hfila * far * aflaþi ut i * kri[k]um * arfa * sinum

Old Norse transcription:

Karr let ræisa stæin þenna at Horsa(?), faður sinn, ok Kabbi(?)/Kampi(?)/Kappi(?)/Gapi(?) at mag sinn. Fo[r] hæfila, feaR aflaði ut i Grikkium arfa sinum.

English translation:

"Kárr had this stone raised in memory of Haursi(?), his father; and Kabbi(?)/Kampi(?)/Kappi(?)/Gapi(?) in memory of his kinsman-by-marriage. (He) travelled competently; earned wealth abroad in Greece for his heir."^[45]

[edit] U 922

Runestone U 922 is hidden inside the floor in Uppsala Cathedral, next to the tomb of king Gustav Vasa of Sweden. It was analysed during a reconstruction of the cathedral, but the architects refused requests to remove the rune stone, and so it remains hidden indefinitely. Its style is mid-Urnes (Pr4) style. It was raised by four men in memory of their father, Ingifastr, who was the captain of a ship and travelled to Greece. The stone was carved by Öpir, the most famous of the old runemasters.

Ígulbjörn also appears on a second runestone in Uppsala Cathedral, U 925, made by Ígulbjörn in memory of his son GagR who died "in the South", with "South" likely referring to the Byzantine Empire.^[37][46]

Latin transliteration:

ikimuntr ' uk þorþr * [iarl ' uk uikibiarn * litu ' risa * stain ' at] ikifast * faþur [* sin sturn*maþr '] sum ' for ' til * girkha ' hut ' sun ' ionha * uk * at * igulbiarn * in ybiR [* risti *]

Old Norse transcription:

Ingimundr ok Þorðr, Iarl ok Vigbiorn(?) letu ræisa stæin at Ingifast, faður sinn, styrimaðr, sum for til Girkia ut, sunn Iona(?), ok at Igulbiorn. En ØpiR risti.

English translation:

"Ingimundr and Þórðr (and) Jarl and Vígbjôrn(?) had the stone raised in memory of Ingifastr, their father, a captain who travelled abroad to Greece, Ióni's(?) son; and in memory of Ígulbjôrn. And Œpir carved."^[47]

[edit] U 956

Runestone U 956 is found at Vedyxa near Uppsala. It was made by the runemaster Åsmund Kåresson in Urnes (Pr3) style, and is divided into two parts. It was raised by a woman in memory of her husband who had travelled to Greece.

Latin transliteration:

' stniltr ' lit * rita stain þino ' abtiR ' uiþbiurn ' krikfara ' buanta sin kuþ hialbi hos| |salu| |uk| |kuþs u muþiR osmuntr kara sun markaþi

Old Norse transcription:

Stæinhildr let retta stæin þenna æptiR Viðbiorn Grikkfara, boanda sinn. Guð hialpi hans salu ok Guðs <u> moðiR. Asmundr Kara sunn markaði.

English translation:

"Steinhildr had this stone erected in memory of Viðbjôrn, her husband, a traveller to Greece. May God and God's mother help his soul. Ásmundr Kári' son marked."^[48]

[edit] U 1016

Runestone U 1016, found in Fjuckby, has tentatively been classified under style Urnes (Pr2). There are two readings of the stone (P and Q), yet both relate that it was raised by Ljótr in memory of his two sons. One of the sons, Áki, died abroad, and the second died at home. One of the two was the captain of a knarr (a Viking cargo ship) and conducted trade with the Byzantine Empire.

Latin transliteration:

P * liutr : sturimaþr * riti : stain : þinsa : aftir : sunu * sina : sa hit : aki : sims uti furs : sturþ(i) * -(n)ari * kuam *: hn krik*:hafnir : haima tu : ...-mu-... ...(k)(a)(r)... (i)uk (r)(u)-(a) * ...

Q * liutr : sturimaþr * riti : stain : þinsa : aftir : sunu * sina : sa hit : aki : sims uti furs : sturþ(i) * -(n)ari * kuam *: hn krik * : hafnir : haima tu : ...-mu-... ...(k)(a)(r)... (i)uk (r)(u)-(a) * ...

Old Norse transcription:

P Liutr styrimaðr retti stæin þennsa æftiR sunu sina. Sa het Aki, sem's uti fors. Styrði [k]nærri, kvam hann GrikkhafniR, hæima do ... ... hiogg(?) ru[n]aR(?) ...

Q Liutr styrimaðr retti stæin þennsa æftiR sunu sina. Sa het Aki, sem's uti fors. Styrði [k]nærri, kvam hann Grikkia. HæfniR, hæima do ... ... hiogg(?) ru[n]aR(?) ...

English translation:

P "Ljótr the captain erected this stone in memory of his sons. He who perished abroad was called Áki. (He) steered a cargo-ship; he came to Greek harbours; died at home ... ... cut the runes ..."

Q "Ljótr the captain erected this stone in memory of his sons. He who perished abroad was called Áki. (He) steered a cargo-ship; he came to Greece. Hefnir died at home ... ... cut the runes ..."^[49]

[edit] U 1087

Runestone U 1087, originally located in Lövsta, has since disappeared. It is in the mid-Urnes (Pr4) style, and was raised by a mother in memory of her two sons, one of whom died in Greece.

Latin transliteration:

[fastui * lit * risa stain * iftiR * karþar * auk * utirik suni * sino * onar uarþ tauþr i girkium *]

Old Norse transcription:

Fastvi let ræisa stæin æftiR Gærðar ok Otrygg, syni sina. Annarr varð dauðr i Grikkium.

English translation:

Fastvé had the stone raised in memory of Gerðarr and Ótryggr, her sons. The other (= the latter) died in Greece.^[50]

[edit] Södermanland

There are seven runestones in Södermanland that relate of voyages to Greece. Two of them appear to mention commanders of the Varangian Guard and a second talks of a thegn, a high ranking warrior, who fought and died together with Greeks.

[edit] Sö Fv1954;20

This runestones was carved and raised by Björn in memory of a man who died in Greece. It was discovered in 1952 during the plowing of a field, together with an uninscribed stone. It was consequently part of a twin monument and they had been positioned on both sides of a locally important road, where they had marked a ford. Both stones had lost their upper parts and the runestone's present height is 1.52 m (of which 1.33 is above ground) and it is 0.55 m wide.^[51] Its style is Fp.^[52]

Latin transliteration:

biurn : lit : risa : stin : i(f)... ... ... ...r : austr : i : kirikium : biurn hik

Old Norse transcription:

Biorn let ræisa stæin æf[tiR] ... ... [dauð]r austr i Grikkium. Biorn hiogg.

English translation:

"Bjôrn had the stone raised in memory of ... ... died in the east in Greece. Bjôrn cut."^[52]

[edit] Sö 82

Runestone Sö 82 is found at the church of Tumbo. Its style is either Fp or Ringerike (Pr1). The stone was raised by Vésteinn in memory of his brother Freysteinn who died in Greece. According to Omeljan Pritsak, Freysteinn, the brother of Vésteinn, was the commander of a retinue.^[37]

Latin transliteration:

[+] ui--(a)n [× (b)a-]iR × (i)þrn + RftRh × fraitRn × bruþur × [is](R)n × þuþR × kRkum (×) [þulR × iuk × uln ×]

Old Norse transcription:

Vi[st]æinn <ba-iR> <iþrn> æftiR Frøystæin, broður sinn, dauðr [i] Grikkium. Þuli(?)/ÞulR(?) hiogg <uln>.

English translation:

"Vésteinn ... in memory of Freysteinn, his brother, (who) died in Greece. Þuli(?)/Þulr(?) cut ..."^[53]

[edit] Sö 85

Runestone Sö 85, consisting of four fragments found at Västerby, is in the rare KB style. It was raised by at least two people in memory of their father who died in Greece.

Latin transliteration:

: ansuar : auk : ern... ... [: faþur sin : han : enta]þis : ut i : krikum (r)uþr : ---...unk------an-----

Old Norse transcription:

Andsvarr ok Ærn... ... faður sinn. Hann ændaðis ut i Grikkium ... ...

English translation:

"Andsvarr and Ern-... ... their father. He met his end abroad in Greece. ... ..."^[54]

[edit] Sö 163

Runestone Sö 163, found in Rycksta, is of the Fp style, dating it to the first half of the 11th century. It was raised by a father, Þryðríkr, in memory of his two sons, one of whom travelled to Greece and "divided up gold". This expression also appears on runestone Sö 165, below, and it can either mean that he was responsible for distributing payment to the members of the Varangian Guard or that he took part in the division of booty.^[55]

Latin transliteration:

þruRikr : stain : at : suni : sina : sniala : trakia : for : ulaifr : i : krikium : uli : sifti :

Old Norse transcription:

ÞryðrikR stæin at syni sina, snialla drængia, for OlæifR/GullæifR i Grikkium gulli skifti.

English translation:

"Þryðríkr (raised) the stone in memory of his sons, able valiant men. Óleifr/Gulleifr travelled to Greece, divided (up) gold."^[56]

[edit] Sö 165

Runestone Sö 165 is found in Grinda, and its style is tentatively given as RAK. It was raised by a mother, Guðrun, in memory of her son, Heðinn. Like runestone Sö 163, it also reports that the man concerned went to Greece and "divided up gold" (compare Sö 163, above). The inscription itself is a poem in fornyrðislag.^[55]

Latin transliteration:

kuþrun : raisti : stain : at : hiþin : uaR : nafi suais : uaR : han :: i : krikum iuli skifti : kristr : hialb : ant : kristunia :

Old Norse transcription:

Guðrun ræisti stæin at Heðin, vaR nefi Svæins. VaR hann i Grikkium, gulli skifti. Kristr hialp and kristinna.

English translation:

"Guðrún raised the stone in memory of Heðinn; (he) was Sveinn's nephew. He was in Greece, divided (up) gold. May Christ help Christians' spirits."^[57]

[edit] Sö 170

Runestone Sö 170 is found in Nälberga, and its style is tentatively given as RAK, dating it to around 1000. It was raised by three sons in memory of their father, a "thegn of strength", who fought and died together with Greeks, probably in a battle somewhere in the Byzantine Empire. The runes are primarily of the long-branch kind, but some of them are cipher runes of the short-twig kind.

Guðvér, the youngest son, rose to become the commander of the Varangian Guard in the mid-11th century.^[16] This is inferred from a second mention of Guðvér on the runestone Sö 217, which was raised in memory of one of the members of Guðvér's retinue.^[16]

Latin transliteration:

: uistain : agmunr : kuþuiR : þaiR : r...(s)þu : stain : at : baulf : faþur sin þrutaR þiagn han miþ kriki uarþ tu o /þum þa/þumþa

Old Norse transcription:

Vistæinn, Agmundr, GuðveR, þæiR r[æi]sþu stæin at Baulf, faður sinn, þrottaR þiagn. Hann með Grikki varð, do a /<þum> þa/<þumþa>.

English translation:

"Vésteinn, Agmundr (and) Guðvér, they raised the stone in memory of Báulfr, their father, a Þegn of strength. He was with the Greeks; then died with them(?) / at <þum>."^[58]

[edit] Sö 345

Runestone Sö 345 is found at the church of Ytterjärna. No style has been attributed to it, and thus no more exact date can be other than the Viking Age. Most of the inscription has been lost, yet the remaining fragments relate that it was raised in honour of a man who died in Greece.

Latin transliteration:

A ... ...in × þinsa × at × kai(r)... ... ...-n * eR * e[n-a]þr × ut - × kr...

B ... ...roþur × ...

C ... ... raisa : ...

Old Norse transcription:

A ... [stæ]in þennsa at GæiR... ... [Ha]nn eR æn[d]aðr ut [i] Gr[ikkium].

B ... [b]roður ...

C ... [let] ræisa ...

English translation:

"... this stone in memory of Geir-... ... He had met his end abroad in Greece."^[59]

[edit] Östergötland

In Östergötland, there are two runestones that mention Greece. One, the notable Högby Runestone, describes the deaths of several brothers in different parts of Europe.

[edit] Ög 81

The Högby runestone is in Ringerike (Pr1) style. It commemorates Özurr, one of the first Varangians who is known to have died in the service of the Byzantine Emperor, and he is estimated to have died around 1010,^[60] or in the late 10th century.^[61] He was one of the sons of the "good man" Gulli, and the runestone describes a situation that may have been common for Scandinavian families at this time:^[60] the stone was made on the orders of Özur's niece, Þorgerðr, in memory of her uncles who were all dead.^[60]

Þorgerðr probably had the stone made as soon as she had learnt that Assur, the last of her uncles, had died in Greece, and she likely did this to ensure her right of inheritance.^[62] The inscription on the reverse side of the stone, relating how her other uncles died, is in fornyrðislag.^[62]

Goðr karl Gulli gat fæm syni. Fioll a Føri frøkn drængR Asmundr, ændaðis Assurr austr i Grikkium, varð a Holmi Halfdan drepinn, Kari varð at Uddi(?) ok dauðr Boi.

The good man Gulli got five sons. The brave valiant man Ásmundr fell at Fœri; Ôzurr met his end in the east in Greece; Halfdan was killed at Holmr (Bornholm?); Kári was (killed) at Oddr(?); also dead (is) Búi.

Ásmundr probably died in the Battle of Fýrisvellir, in the 980s, and it was probably at the side of king Eric the Victorious.^[63] Özurr had entered into the service of a more powerful liege and died for the Byzantine Emperor.^[64] Halfdan may have died either on Bornholm or in a holmgang,^[65] and where Kári died remain uncertain.^[65] The most likely interpretation may be that he died on Od, the old name for the north-western cape of Zealand.^[65] Búi's location of death is not given, but it was probably in a way which was not as glorious as those of his brothers.^[65]

Latin transliteration:

A * þukir * resþi * stin * þansi * eftiR * asur * sen * muþur*bruþur * sin * iaR * eataþis * austr * i * krikum *

B * kuþr * karl * kuli * kat * fim * syni * feal * o * furi * frukn * treks * asmutr * aitaþis * asur * austr * i krikum * uarþ * o hulmi * halftan * tribin * kari * uarþ * at uti *

C auk * tauþr * bui * þurkil * rist * runaR *

Old Norse transcription:

A Þorgærðr(?) ræisþi stæin þannsi æftiR Assur, sinn moðurbroður sinn, eR ændaðis austr i Grikkium.

B Goðr karl Gulli gat fæm syni. Fioll a Føri frøkn drængR Asmundr, ændaðis Assurr austr i Grikkium, varð a Holmi Halfdan drepinn, Kari varð at Uddi(?)

C ok dauðr Boi. Þorkell ræist runaR.

English translation:

A "Þorgerðr(?) raised this stone in memory of Ôzurr, her mother's brother. He met his end in the east in Greece."

B "The good man Gulli got five sons. The brave valiant man Ásmundr fell at Fœri; Ôzurr met his end in the east in Greece; Halfdan was killed at Holmr (Bornholm?); Kári was (killed) at Oddr(?);"

C "also dead (is) Búi. Þorkell carved the runes."^[66]

[edit] Ög 94

Runestone Ög 94 is located in the cemetery of the church Harstad. Its style is Ringerike (Pr1), dating it to the first half of the 11th century. It was raised by a woman in remembrance of her husband, whose name appears to have been Oddlaugr, who is described as a "good husband" and who died in Greece. Also noteworthy is the fact that the inscription mentions Haðistaðir, the Old Norse form of nearby Haddestad.

Latin transliteration:

: askata : auk : kuþmutr : þau : risþu : kuml : þ[i](t)a : iftiR : u-auk : iaR : buki| |i : haþistaþum : an : uaR : bunti : kuþr : taþr : i : ki[(r)]k[(i)(u)(m)]

Old Norse transcription:

Asgauta/Askatla ok Guðmundr þau ræisþu kumbl þetta æftiR O[ddl]aug(?), eR byggi i Haðistaðum. Hann vaR bondi goðr, dauðr i Grikkium(?).

English translation:

"Ásgauta/Áskatla and Guðmundr, they raised this monument in memory of Oddlaugr(?), who lived in Haðistaðir. He was a good husbandman; (he) died in Greece(?)"^[67]

[edit] Västergötland

From Västergötland, the waterways of which are oriented westwards, there is only one runestone that mentions Greece.

[edit] Vg 178

This rune stone is raised in the cemetery of the church of Kölaby. Its style is given as Pr1, which dates it to the first half of the 11th century. It was raised in memory of a man named Ásbjörn Kolbeinsson who died in Greece.

Latin transliteration:

: agmuntr : risþi : stin : þonsi : iftiR : isbiurn : frinta : sin : auk : (a)(s)(a) : it : buta : sin : ian : saR : uaR : klbins : sun : saR : uarþ : tuþr : i : krikum

Old Norse transcription:

Agmundr ræisti stæin þannsi æftiR Æsbiorn, frænda sinn, ok Asa(?) at bonda sinn, en saR vaR Kulbæins sunn. SaR varð dauðr i Grikkium.

English translation:

"Agmundr raised this stone in memory of Ásbjôrn, his kinsman; and Ása(?) in memory of her husbandman. And he was Kolbeinn's son; he died in Greece."^[68]

[edit] Småland

There was only one rune stone in Småland that mentioned Greece. The stone has disappeared, but not before its inscription was recorded by runologists.

[edit] Sm 46

Before runestone Sm 46 disappeared, it was located in Eriksstad. Its style was RAK, dating it to around 1000. It was raised by a woman in memory of her son, Sveinn, who died in Greece.

Latin transliteration:

[...nui krþi : kubl : þesi : iftiR suin : sun : sin : im ÷ itaþisk ou*tr i krikum]

Old Norse transcription:

...vi gærði kumbl þessi æftiR Svæin, sun sinn, eR ændaðis austr i Grikkium.

English translation:

"...-vé made these monuments in memory of Sveinn, her son, who met his end in the east in Greece."^[69]

[edit] Gotland

Only one runestone mentioning the Byzantine Empire has been found on Gotland. This may be due both to the fact that few rune stones were raised on Gotland in favour of image stones, as well as to the fact that the Gotlanders dealt mainly in trade, paying a yearly tribute to the Swedes for military protection.^[70]

[edit] G 216

Runestone G 216, located in the Gotlands fornsal museum, is dated to the second half of the 11th century. It apparently contains an account of the places visited by a well-travelled local merchant: Iceland, Serkland, Greece and Jerusalem.

Latin transliteration:

: ormiga : ulfua-r : krikiaR : iaursaliR (:) islat : serklat

Old Norse transcription:

Ormika, Ulfhva[t]r(?), GrikkiaR, IorsaliR, Island, Særkland.

English translation:

"Ormika, Ulfhvatr(?), Greece, Jerusalem, Iceland, Serkland."^[71]

[edit] Notes

[edit] Sources

• Enoksen, Lars Magnar. (1998). Runor : historia, tydning, tolkning. Historiska Media, Falun. ISBN 91-88930-32-7
• Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv. Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo. ISBN: 978-91-27-35725-9.
• Jansson, S. B. F. (1954). Uppländska, småländska och sörmländska runstensfynd, in Bohrn, E. (ed) Fornvännen årgång 54.[1] pp. 1-25.
• Jansson, Sven B. (1980). Runstenar. STF, Stockholm. ISBN: 91-7156-015-7.
• Jesch, Judith (2001). Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse. Boydell Press. ISBN: 0-851-15826-9.
• Larsson, Mats G (2002). Götarnas Riken : Upptäcktsfärder Till Sveriges Enande. Bokförlaget Atlantis AB ISBN 9789174866414
• Pritsak, Omeljan. (1981). The origin of Rus'. Cambridge, Mass.: Distributed by Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute. ISBN: 0-674-64465-4.
• Wessén, E.; Jansson, S. B. F. (1940-1943). Sveriges runinskrifter: VI. Upplands runinskrifter del 1. Stockholm: Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien. ISSN 0562-8016. 
• Nordisk runnamnslexikon by Lena Peterson at the Swedish Institute for Linguistics and Heritage (Institutet för språk och folkminnen).
• Rundata

[edit] External links

• An English Dictionary of Runic Inscriptions of the Younger Futhark, at the university of Nottingham