Battle of the Alamo

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The Battle of the Alamo
Part of the Texas Revolution (against Mexico)
Plan of the Alamo, by José Juan Sánchez-Navarro, 1836.
Date February 23–March 6, 1836 Location San Antonio, Texas Result Mexican Victory
Belligerents
Republic of Mexico	Republic of Texas
Commanders
Antonio López de Santa Anna Pérez de Lebrón	William Travis† Jim Bowie† Davy Crockett†
Strength
6,000 in siege 1,200 in assault 20 guns	between 180 and 250 21 guns
Casualties and losses
Disputed Siege: Around 100 killed, 250 wounded Assault: Around 200 killed, 300 wounded	All soldiers killed, except some women, children and two slaves

v • d • e Texas Revolution Gonzales – Concepción – Grass Fight – Bexar – San Patricio – Agua Dulce – The Alamo – Refugio – Coleto – San Jacinto

The Battle (and siege) of the Alamo took place at the Alamo Mission in San Antonio, Texas (then known as "San Antonio de Béxar") in February and March 1836. As part of the Texas Revolution, the battle was between the Republic of Mexico and the rebel Texian forces, including both Whites and Blacks (from the United States) and Tejanos (Mexicans in Texas), during the Texians' fight for independence — the Texas Revolution. The 13-day siege started Tuesday, February 23, 1836, and ended on Sunday, March 6, 1836, with the capture of the mission and the death of nearly all the Texian and Tejano defenders, except for a few slaves, women and children. Despite the win, the 13-day holdout stalled the Mexican Army, and allowed Sam Houston to gather troops and supplies for his later success at the Battle of San Jacinto. The Texian revolutionaries went on to win the war.

The battle took place at a turning point in the Texas Revolution, which had begun with the October 1835 Consultation, whose delegates narrowly approved a call for rights under the Mexican Constitution of 1824. By the time of the battle, however, sympathy for declaring independence from Mexico had grown. The delegates from the Alamo to the Constitutional Convention were both instructed to vote for independence.

Contents 1 Background 2 Prelude to battle 3 Alamo defenders 4 Siege 4.1 February 23 4.2 February 24 4.3 February 25 4.4 February 26–27 5 Final assault 5.1 Exterior fighting 5.2 Interior fighting 6 Aftermath 7 Controversies 7.1 Line in the sand 8 Legacy 8.1 Popular culture 9 See also 10 Footnotes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links

[edit] Background

Main articles: Mexican Texas and Texas Revolution

In 1821, the Mexican War for Independence severed Spain's control over its North American territories. Much of the former Spanish territory formed a new country, Mexico,^[1] which officially adopted a constitution in 1824 based on the constitution of the United States of America.^[2] The constitution allowed for the creation of a new state, Coahuila y Tejas, which comprised the former Spanish provinces of Coahuila and Texas. At the time, Texas included the land north of the Medina and the Nueces Rivers, 100 miles (161 km) northeast of the Rio Grande^[3], west of San Antonio de Bexar, and east of the Sabine River.^[4][5][3] The capitol of Texas moved from San Antonio to Saltillo.^[6]

Texas was sparsely populated, with fewer than 3,500 settlers in 1821. The settlers faced raids from both the Apache and Comanche tribes and the bankrupt Mexican government was unable to offer military support.^[7][8] In the hope that an influx of settlers could control the Indian raids, the government liberalized its immigration policies for the region, and settlers from the United States were permitted to immigrate for the first time.^[7] By 1834, an estimated 30,000 English speakers lived in Texas,^[9] compared to only 7800 of Spanish heritage.^[10]

In 1835, Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna abrogated the Constitution of 1824 and proclaimed a new constitution that reduced the power of many of the provincial governments and increased the power of the presidency. This prompted open rebellion in parts of the country as centralists who supported Santa Anna fought federalists who desired the reinstatement of the Constitution of 1824. In the early part of the year, Santa Anna led a force he termed the Army of Operations to suppress the revolts in Tampico, the Yucatán, and Zacatecas.

The Texas Revolution officially began on October 2, 1835 with the Battle of Gonzales. Rebellious Texians then quickly captured the Mexican position at La Bahía and marched on San Antonio de Bexar, where General Martín Perfecto de Cos led the only remaining Mexican garrison in Texas. The siege of Bexar ended with a five-day battle within the city that culminated in the Cos's surrender. Under the terms of his parole, Cos and his men were required to retreat south of the Rio Grande and swear an oath that they would not take up arms against the Constitution on 1824.

Santa Anna decided to launch an offensive with the aim of putting down the rebellion. Minister of War José María Tornel and Major General Vicente Filisola proposed a seaborne attack to Santa Anna, which would have been easier on the troops and had been a proven means of expeditions into Texas since 1814. Santa Anna refused on the basis that this plan would take too long and the rebels in Texas might receive aid from the United States.

Santa Anna assembled an estimated force of 6,100 soldiers and 20 cannons at San Luis Potosí in early 1836 and moved through Saltillo, Coahuila, towards Texas. His army marched across the Rio Grande through inclement weather, including snowstorms, to suppress the rebellion. San Antonio de Béxar was one of his intermediate objectives; his ultimate objective was to capture the Texas government and restore the rule of the central or "Centralista" Mexican government over a rebellious state. Santa Anna and his army arrived in San Antonio de Béxar on February 23. It was a mixed force of regular infantry and cavalry units as well as activo reserve infantry battalions and prisoners from the Yucatán impressed into the army. They were equipped with the British Baker and the outdated, short range but effective and deadly British Tower Musket, Mark III, or "Brown Bess" musket. Many of his soldiers were recent conscripts with no previous combat experience. Although they were well-drilled, the Mexican army discouraged individual marksmanship. The initial forces were equipped with four 7 inch (178 mm) howitzers, seven 4-pound (1.8 kg), four 6-pound (2.7 kg), four 8-pound (3.6 kg) and two 12-pound (5 kg) cannon.

[edit] Prelude to battle

After Sam Houston received word that Santa Anna was leading a large force to San Antonio, James Bowie offered to lead volunteers to defend the Alamo from the expected attack. He arrived with 30 men on January 19,^[11] where they found a force of 104 men with a few weapons and a few cannons but little supplies and gunpowder.^[12] Houston knew that there were not enough men to hold the fort in an attack and had given Bowie orders to remove the artillery and blow up the fortification. Bowie and the Alamo captain, James C. Neill, decided they did not have enough oxen to move the artillery someplace safer, and they did not want to destroy the fortress. On January 26, one of Bowie's men, James Bonham, organized a rally which passed a resolution in favor of holding the Alamo. Bonham signed the resolution first, with Bowie's signature second.^[13]

Through Bowie's connections due to his marriage and his fluency in Spanish, the predominantly Mexican population of San Antonio often furnished him with information about the movements of the Mexican army. After learning that Santa Anna had 4,500 troops and was heading for the city.^[13] Bowie wrote several letters to the provisional government asking for help in defending the Alamo, especially "men, money, rifles, and cannon powder".^[14] In another letter, to Governor Smith, he reiterated his view that "the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Bexar out of the hands of the enemy. It serves as the frontier picquet guard, and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna, there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march toward the Sabine."^[14] The letter to Smith ended, "Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy."^[14]

On February 3, William Travis arrived with an additional 30 troops, and several days later Davy Crockett appeared with twelve Tennesseans. Neill went on furlough on February 17 to visit his sick family, leaving Travis, a member of the regular army, in command.^[14] Bowie was older than Travis with a better reputation and considered himself a colonel, thus outranking Travis, a major.^[15][16] He refused to answer to Travis, who called an election for the men to choose their own commander. They chose Bowie, infuriating Travis.^[15] Bowie celebrated his appointment by getting very drunk and causing havoc in San Antonio, releasing all prisoners in the local jails and harassing citizens. Travis was disgusted, but two days later the men agreed to a joint command; Bowie would command the volunteers, and Travis would command the regular army and the volunteer cavalry.^[15][17]

[edit] Alamo defenders

In the United States, the siege of the Alamo was seen as a battle of American settlers against Mexicans, but many of the Tejanos sided with the rebellion. Many viewed this struggle in similar terms with the American Revolution of 1776. The Tejanos wanted Mexico to have a loose central government which supported states rights as expressed in the 1824 Constitution. One Tejano combatant at the Alamo was Captain (later Colonel) Juan Nepomuceno Seguín, who was sent out as a dispatch rider before the final assault. Other Tejanos include Toribio Losoya and Gregorio Esparza, whose entire family waited out the siege inside the Alamo.

The defenders of the Alamo came from many places besides Texas. William Barret Travis and James Butler Bonham were both from Saluda County, South Carolina, and Travis had spent some time in Alabama. Jim Bowie was born in Kentucky but spent most of his life in Louisiana. From Tennessee came another small group of volunteers led by famous hunter, politician and Indian-fighter David "Davy" Crockett who was accompanied by Micajah Autry, a neighbor and lawyer. The 12-man "Tennessee Mounted Volunteers" arrived at the Alamo on February 8. The previous month David Crockett had resigned from politics having told his peers "You may all go to hell, I'm going to Texas."^[18]

Another group, the "New Orleans Greys", came from that city to fight as infantry in the revolution. The two companies comprising the Greys had participated in the Siege of Béxar in December. Most of the Greys then left San Antonio de Béxar for an expedition to Matamoros, Tamaulipas, with the promise of taking the war to Mexico, but about two dozen remained at the Alamo.

[edit] Siege

On February 16 and February 18, local resident Ambrosio Rodriguez warned his good friend Travis that their relatives further south claimed that Santa Anna was on the march towards Bexar.^[19][20] Two day's later, Seguin's scout Blas Herrera reported that the vanguard of the Mexican army had crossed the Rio Grande. There had been many rumors of Santa Anna's imminent arrival, but Travis ignored them.^[20][21] For several hours that night a council of war held at the Alamo argued over whether to believe the rumors.^[20] Travis was convinced that the Mexican army would not arrive in Bexar until at least mid-March.^[22] He, and others in the Texian army thought Santa Anna would not march until spring, when the grass had begun to grow again. They overlooked the fact that mesquite grass sprouted earlier than normal grass.^[23] Travis had also assumed that Santa Anna would not have begun gathering troops for an invasion of Texas until after he had learned of Cos's defeat; the Texians did not realize that Santa Anna had begun preparations for an invasion months before.^[24]

Despite the Texian disbelief, by the evening of February 20, many of the residents of Bexar began to pack their belongings in preparation for leaving. The next day, 15 of the Tejano volunteers at the Alamo resigned.^[22] Seguin had asked Travis to release the men so that they could help evacuate their families, who were in the path Santa Anna would take to reach Bexar.^[25] Santa Anna had crossed the Rio Grande on February 16. The next night, his army camped on the Nueces River, 119 miles (192 km) from Bexar.^[26] Texians had previously burned the bridge over the Nueces, forcing the Mexicans to build a makeshift structure of branches and dirt in the pouring rain. The delay was brief, and on February 19 the vanguard of the army camped along the Frio River, 68 miles (109 km) from Bexar. The following day, they reached Hondo, less than 50 miles (80 km) away. By 1:45 pm on February 21, Santa Anna and his vanguard had reached the banks of the Medina River, 25 miles (40 km) from Bexar. Waiting there were dragoons under Colonel Ramirez y Sesma, who had arrived the previous evening.^[27][28] With no idea that the Mexican army was so close, all but 10 members of the Alamo garrison joined about 2000 Bexar residents at a fiesta to celebrate George Washington's birthday.^[29] Centralists in Bexar soon alerted Santa Anna to the party, and he ordered General Ramirez y Sesma to lead a cavalry force to take the Alamo while the garrison celebrated elsewhere. The raid had to be called off when sudden rains made the Medina unfordable.^[28] The next night, Santa Anna and his army camped at Leon Creek, 8 miles (13 km) west of San Antonio.^[30]

[edit] February 23

By the early morning of February 23, many of the Bexar residents had learned that the Mexican army's arrival was imminent and began to leave. When Travis noticed the unusual traffic, he questioned residents and learned of rumors of Santa Anna's approach. He, Dr. James Sutherland, and a third man climbed to the top of the tower of the San Fernando church but in the pre-dawn light they were unable to see anything.^[29][31] Travis and Sutherland left the third man in the tower and returned to the Alamo.^[29] Travis then asked Captain Philip Dimitt and Lieutenant Benjamin Noble to try to locate the Mexican army.^[32] At approximately 2:30 that afternoon,^[32] the church bell began to ring as the third man claimed to have seen flashes in the distance.^[29] Although Travis could still see nothing, since Dimitt and Noble had not returned he sent Sutherland and John W. Smith on horseback to scout the area.^[32][29] Within 1.5 miles (2.4 km) of the town, they saw the troops of the Delores Cavalry and returned to Bexar at a run.^[29] Santa Anna later claimed that he had ordered the cavalry to execute a surprise attack on the morning of February 23, and that if they had done so the siege could have been avoided.^[33] In his book Alamo Traces: New Evidence and New Conclusions, Thomas Ricks Lindley concluded that Sesma's troops had captured a Texian spy, Trinidad Coy, who lied about a Texian ambush further ahead, prompting Sesma to halt at 7 a.m. and wait for reinforcements.^[34] Historian Lon Tinkle speculated that the combination of the church bell ringing and the sight of the two Texian scouts led Sesma to believe that the Texians were planning an assault on the cavalry.^[33]

At this point, there were approximately 154 effective Texian soldiers in the Alamo, with another 14 in the hospital.^[32] The men were completely unprepared for the arrival of the Mexican army, and had no food in the mission.^[30] The men quickly herded cattle in the Alamo and scrounged for food in some of the recently abandoned houses.^[35] They were able to gather enough beef and corn into the Alamo to last a month. The Alamo garrison also had a large supply of captured Mexican muskets, with over 19,000 paper cartridges, but only a limited supply of powder for the artillery.^[36] Several members of the garrison dismantled the blacksmith shop of Antonio Saez, who had previously assisted the Texians, and moved much of the material into the Alamo.^[32] A few members of the garrison brought their families into the Alamo to keep them safe. Among these was Alamaron Dickinson, who fetched his wife Susanna and their daughter Angelina, and Bowie, who brought his deceased wife's cousins, Gertrudis Navarro and Juana Navarro Alsbury and Alsbury's young son into the fort.^[37] It is likely that Navarro and Alsbury also brought their family's servants, Sam and Bettie.^[38] Alsbury's husband, Horace Alsbury, was a member of the Texian army, and departed for Gonzales immediately after Juana moved into the Alamo to warn the settlers that the Mexican Army was outside of Bexar.^[32]

While the bulk of the garrison prepared for the attack, a few Texians remained in Bexar and raised a flag in the middle of Military Plaza. According to historian J.R. Edmondson, "The flag was a variation of the Mexican tricolor with two stars, representing the separated states of Texas and Coahuila, gleaming from the white center bar."^[36] Within an hour, the first of the Mexican cavalry, commanded by Colonel Jose Vicente Minon, entered San Antonio.^[39][40] The Texians lowered their flag and brought it into the Alamo.^[36]

As the Mexican cavalry approached, Travis dispatched a man named Johnson to ask Fannin, 100 miles (160 km) southeast, to send reinforcements immediately. That afternoon, Travis sent Smith and Sutherland with message to the alcade at Gonzales, 70 miles (110 km) away.^[41] The note to Gonzales read: "The enemy in large force is in sight. We want men and provisions. Send them to us. We have 150 men and are determined to defend the Alamo to the last."^[22]

By late afternoon, Bexar was completely occupied by about 1500 Mexican troops, who quickly raised a blood-red flag signifying "No Quarter" above the San Fernando Church.^[41][42] Soon after, a Mexican bugler sounded the request for parley. Travis ordered the Alamo's 18-lb cannon fired. The Mexican army responded with four balls from 7-in howitzers; the balls hit the interior of the Alamo but caused no damage or injuries.^[41] Santa Anna later reported that the initial Texian cannon fire killed two Mexican soldiers and wounded eight others;^[42] no other Mexican officer, however, reported fatalities from that day.^[43]

Bowie believed that Travis had acted hastily and sent Green B. Jameson to meet with Santa Anna.^[44] Jameson carried a letter addressed to "The Commander of the invading forces below Bejar" and signed "Commander of the volunteers of Bejar".^[45] Angry that Bowie presented himself as Santa Anna's equal,^[46] the Mexican general refused to meet with Jameson but allowed Colonel Juan Almonte and Jose Bartres to parley. Almonte later said that Jameson asked for an honorable surrender, but Bartres replied "I reply to you, according to the order of His Excellency, that the Mexican army cannot come to terms under any conditions with rebellious foreigners to whom there is no recourse left, if they wish to save their lives, than to place themselves immediately at the disposal of the Supreme Government from whom alone they may expect clemency after some considerations.”^[44] Travis was angered that Bowie had acted unilaterally and sent his own emissary to the Mexican army; he received the same response. Bowie and Travis then mutually agreed to fire the cannon again.^[47]

By the time the parleys were over, it was nightfall, and the firing ceased. That evening, the Mexicans erected an artillery battery near the Veramendi house.^[48] Santa Anna also sent General Ventura Mora's cavalry to circle to the north and east of the Alamo to prevent the arrival of Texian reinforcements.^[49] According to Edmondson, the Texians sent a small party to forage that evening. They returned with six pack mules and a prisoner, a Mexican soldier who would later be used interpret Mexican bugle calls.^[50] The Texians received one reinforcement that night, when one of Seguin's men, Gregorio Esparza, arrived with his family. Texian sentries refused to open the gate, but others helped the family climb through the window of the chapel.^[51] Several other Texian soldiers were unable to make it into the Alamo. Dimitt and Noble, who had been scouting for signs of the Mexican army, were told by a local Tejano that Bexar was surrounded, and they would be unable to re-enter the town. Andrew Jackson Sowell and Boyd Lockhart had been out that morning looking for provisions; on hearing that the Alamo was surrounded they left for their homes in Gonzales.^[40]

[edit] February 24

Wednesday, February 24 marked the first full day of siege. Throughout the day the Mexican army reconnoitered the Alamo defenses. At 11 a.m., Santa Anna accompanied the cavalry on a scouting mission, coming within musket shot of the Alamo. Later that afternoon, Santa Anna personally presided over the distribution of shoes to some members of his army. At roughly the same time, he ordered a Mexican artillery battery consisting of two 8-lb cannon and a mortar located 350 yards (320 m) from the Alamo to begin firing. Mexican Colonel Juan Almonte wrote in his diary that two of the Alamo's guns, including the massive 18-lb cannon, were dismounted. The Texians were able to bring them back into service quickly.^[52]

Bowie had been ill,^[53] and at some point during the day he collapsed and was confined to his bed.^[54] Fearing that he was contagious, Bowie moved into a small room in the low barracks along the south wall of the mission.^[55] Travis was now in sole command of the garrison.^[54] That afternoon Travis wrote a letter addressed To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World, which is, according to Mary Deborah Petite "considered by many as one of the masterpieces of American patriotism".^[56] Travis sent the letter with courier Albert Martin, who delivered it to Gonzales.^[56] There, Launcelot Smithers took custody of the message and delivered it to San Felipe,^[57] where it was read by Governor Henry Smith. Smith told the colonists at San Felipe "to fly to the aid of your besieged countrymen and not permit them to be massacred by a mercenary foe. ... The call is upon ALL who are able to bear army, to rally without one moment's delay, or in fifteen days the heart of Texas will be the seat of war."^[58] The letter was eventually reprinted throughout the United States and much of Europe.^[52]

In early evening evening, Mexican Colonel Juan Bringas led scouts across a footbridge over the San Antonio River; Texian sharpshooters quickly killed one soldier and the Mexicans retreated.^[52] Throughout the night the Mexican artillery sporadically bombarded the church and long barracks, while the Mexican army fired muskets and shouted to fool the Texians into believing that an assault was imminent, or that Texian reinforcements were being slaughtered.^[59] Santa Anna also ordered that his military band serenade the Texians throughout the night. Mexican soldiers took advantage of the darkness and the distractions of the countrymen to erect two more artillery batteries around the Alamo.^[52] The two battiers combined to hold two 8-lb cnanon, two 6-lb cannon, two 4-lb cannon, and two 7-in howitzers. One of the batteries was located along the right bank of the San Antonio River, approximately 1,000 feet (300 m) from the south wall of the Alamo. The other was located 1,000 feet (300 m) east of the eastern wall.^[60] By the end of the first full day of siege, the Mexican army had been reinforced by 600 of Sesma's troops.^[61] Gaona and the First Brigade were still several day's march away, while an additional 400–500 men and most of the Mexican artillery were struggling through mud south of Bexar.^[60]

[edit] February 25

The Mexican bombardment continued through the morning of February 25. At approximately 10 a.m., about 200–300 Mexican soldiers, primarily cazadores from the Matamoros Battalion, crossed the San Antonio river and took cover in abandoned shacks approximately 90 yards (82 m) to 100 yards (91 m) from the Alamo walls.^[52][62][63] The Mexican soldiers were intending to use the huts as cover to erect another artillery battery, although many Texians assumed that they actually launching an assault on the fort.^[64] Travis called for volunteers to burn the huts, despite the fact that it was broad daylight and they would be within musket range of the Mexican soldiers.^[63] Charles Despallier, Robert Brown, James Rose and a few others volunteered for the mission.^[65] To provide cover, Dickinson and his men fired their 8-lb cannons, filled with grapeshot and canister, at the Mexican soldiers in the huts. Crockett and his men fired rifles, while other Texians reloaded extra weapons for them. Within two hours, the battle was over.^[64] As soon as the Texians saw flames erupting from the huts they threw open the Alamo gate, and the Texians re-entered the Alamo, unscathed,^[66] although Rose was almost captured by a Mexican officer.^[65] The Mexican soldiers retreated,^[67], after two of their soldiers were killed and four wounded, while several Texians had been mildly scratched by flying rock.^[62]

That afternoon, Mexican soldiers were posted east of the Alamo, on the road to Gonzales.^[62] Santa Anna learned that a beautiful 17-year-old girl, Melchora Barrera, and her widowed mother had remained in town, and he dispatched one of his men to ask the girl to be Santa Anna's mistress. According to historian J.R. Edmondson, the girl's mother refused the offer, and, although Santa Anna was already married, one of his officers dressed up as a priest and performed a marriage ceremony. Santa Anna then retired to enjoy a honeymoon.^[68]

Santa Anna sent a messenger to tell Gaona to hurry to Bexar with his three best companies.^[69] At the time, the First Brigade was at San Ambrosio, a day's march north of the Rio Grande. According to the diary of Jose Enrique de la Pena, on this day carelessness led the Aldama Battalion's powder supply to catch fire, causing "considerable alarm".^[70] Travis also wrote another letter requesting help. The Texian officers voted that Seguin should carry the message.^[71] Travis was adamant that Seguin remain behind, as his knowledge of the language, the countryside, and Mexican customs was invaluable.^[72] The Texians believed that none of the other couriers had made it through the Mexican lines,^[73] and told Travis that Seguin's knowledge of Spanish would also help him to avoid capture by Mexican patrols.^[74] Seguin, riding Bowie's horse, which was the fastest in the mission, and his aide Antonio Cruz left about 9 pm.^[62] Seguin did not expect to survive the mission; he and Cruz encountered a Mexican cavalry patrol^[75] but were able to escape using their knowledge of Spanish and the local terrain.^[62]

After dark, a small party of Texians left the Alamo to burn down more of the huts; all were able to return to the Alamo without injury.^[76] Despite their efforts, several huts remained standing, and overnight the Mexican army was able to erect a battery only 300 yards (270 m) from the Alamo.^[77] An additional battery was erected at a location known as old Powderhouse, 1,000 yards (910 m) to the southeast of the Alamo. The Mexican army now had artillery stationed on three sides of the Alamo.^[62] Historian Walter Lord said that in the evening several Mexicans left the Alamo and asked to surrender to Santa Anna; they were told that Santa Anna had retired for the evening and could not be disturbed.^[72]

[edit] February 26–27

Residents of Bexar were able to come into or near the Alamo in the first few days of the siege. Seguin's meals had even been delivered by a local, Estaban Pacheco.^[78] During the first week of the siege, over 200 Mexican cannon shots landed in the Alamo plaza. The Texians often picked up the cannonballs and reused them.^[79] Although the Texians had matched Mexican artillery fire, on February 26, Travis ordered the artillery to stop firing to conserve powder and shot. Crockett and his men were encouraged to keep shooting, as they rarely missed and thus didn't waste shot.^[80] Through the early days of the siege, the Texians didn't bother to take cover, as the Mexicans were too far out of their range to cause harm with their muskets; any Mexican soldier who ventured within 200 yards (180 m) of the Alamo, however, risked death or injury.^[81] A blue norther blew in that evening and dropped the temperature to 39 degrees F.^[80] Neither army was prepared for the cold temperatures.^[67] Several Texians ventured out to gather firewood but returned empty-handed after encountering Mexican skirmishers.^[80] On the evening of February 26, the Texians burned more huts, these located near the San Luis Potosi Battalion.^[70] Santa Anna sent COlonel Juan Bringas to engage the Texians, and according to Edmondson, one Texian was killed.^[82]

Unbeknownst to the Texians, Colonel James Fannin had finally decided to ride to their relief.^[83] Historian Robert Scott suggests that the trip was initiated after Fannin's objections were overridden by his officers.^[84] On the morning of February 26, he set out with 320 men, 4 cannon, and several supply wagons for the 90 miles (140 km) march from Goliad to the Alamo.^[83] The Goliad garrison had no horses to move the wagons and artillery and were forced to rely on oxen.^[70] Barely 200 yards (180 m) into their journey, one of the wagons broke down, and the expedition stopped for repairs.^[83] The group then took six hours to cross the waist-deep water of the San Antonio River. By the time they reached the other side it was dark, and the men camped along the river. The cold front reached Goliad that evening, and the poorly-dressed soldiers were "quickly chilled and miserable" in the driving rain.^[85] On awakening, Fannin realized that all of the Texian oxen had wandered off, and that his men had neglected to pack food for the journey.^[86] It took most of the day for the men to round up the oxen; after two days of travel, Fannin's men had not even ventured 1 mile (1.6 km) from their fort.^[87] In a letter to Acting Governor James Robinson, Fannin said that his officers approached him to ask that the rescue trip be cancelled, as they had received word that General Urrea's army was marching towards Goliad.^[85] The officers and men in the expedition claimed that Fannin decided on his own to abort the mission. Several of the men agreed with the decision, with Dr. Barnard writing in his journal, "With but three or four hundred men, mostly on foot, with but a limited supply of provisions, to march a distance of nearly one-hundred miles through uninhabited country for the purpose of relieving a fortress beleaguered by five-thousand men was madness!"^[88]

Several residents had seen Fannin march from Goliad and sent messengers to Bexar to inform Santa Anna that Fannin and 300 men were headed for the Alamo. Santa Anna ordered Colonel Juan Almonte and 800 dragoons to incercept the Texian relief force.^[89] Unaware of Fannin's aborted relief mission, Travis sent James Bonham to Goliad to persuade him.^[90] Bonham was asked to tie a white handkerchief around his hat when he returned so that the Texians would know to open the gates for him.^[91]

Much of the Mexican army's provisions were in the rear of the convoy with Gaona and Filisola. Santa Anna had hoped to restock his army's supplies in Bexar, but were unable to find much.^[92] He finally asked a local citizen, Manuel Menchaca, to help them find food; Menchaca led the army to the Seguin and Florez ranches and liberated all of their corn, beef, and hogs.^[93] Santa Anna sent more couriers to Gaona and Filisola to urge them to hury; Filisola was still at the Rio Grande.^[92]

During the day, the Mexican army tried to block the irrigation ditch leading into the Alamo. Texian Green Jameson tasked the men in the Alamo with finishing a well at the south end of the plaza. Although the men hit water, they weakened an earth and timber parapet by the low barracks; the mound collapsed, leaving no way to fire safely over that wall.^[94] The same day, Texians spotted a Mexican general surrounded by aides and dragoons and fired, but did not hit any of them.^[81] The Texians did not realize it was Santa Anna.^[95]

Travis's messengers were having small successes. Albert Martin had reached Gonzales, the most westerly community of Texians, on February 25, the day after Sutherland and Smith had arrived with Travis's first message.^[96][80] As couriers delivered the messages to other settlements, reinforcements assembled in Gonzales, waiting for Fannin to arrive with more troops so they could travel together.^[97] After learning that Fannin was not coming and that there would likely be no other reinforcements,^[97] a group of 25 men set out from Gonzales at 2 pm on Saturday, February 27.^[98] They were led by Martin and George Kimbell, Almaron Dickinson's business partner.^[99] As the group passed the ranch of volunteer John G. King on their way out of town his fifteen-year-old son, Wiliam, rushed out and asked to take his father's place, as John King was needed to support the family's nine children. The men agreed, and William exchanged places with his father.^[100] On the march to Bexar, eight additional men joined the group.^[101] The men carried with them the first flag ever made for use in a Texian battle; the Come and take it flag from the Battle of Gonzales.^[102] As they approached the Alamo in the wee hours of March 1, a rider appeared in front of them and asked, in English, if they wished to go into the fort. When they said yes, he turned and told them to follow him. When one of the men became suspicious, the rider bolted away. The volunteers were afraid they had been discovered and galloped towards the Alamo. In the darkness, the Texians thought this was a party of Mexican soldiers and fired, wounding one of the volunteers. They finally managed to convince the defenders to open the gates.^[103]

Other Texian militias were preparing to march to the Alamo. In Victoria, Colonel Wharton was preparing to cross the Guadalupe River, while in San Felipe, Captain Mosely Baker ordered the local militia to prepare to march on February 29.^[104] Seguin recruited an additional 25 Tejanos, and Dr. Sutherland and Horace Alsbury, husband of Juana Navarro Alsbury, recruited 12 more men and set out on 28 February for Cibolo in the hopes of meeting Fannin.^[104] Meanwhile, Bonham had spoken with Fannin, who again declined to relieve the Alamo. Bonham then went to Gonzales, only to find that most of the men who weren't at the Alamo had gone to the constitutional convention. He did meet nineteen-year-old Ben Highsmith, who had left the Alamo as a courier before Santa Anna's arrival.^[105] Highsmith had tried to return to the Alamo but had been chased for 6 miles (9.7 km) by Mexican cavalry; he told Bonham that no one could get through the Mexican lines. Despite the warning, on March 2 Bonham crossed the Guadalupe en route to the Alamo.^[106]

[edit] Final assault

[edit] Exterior fighting

Just after midnight on March 6, the Mexican army began preparing for the final assault.^[107] The men were divided into four columns. Cos commanded the first column of 350 men, which comprised 6 line infantry companies and 1 light infantry company from the Aldama Battalion, as well as 3 line infantry companies from the San Luis Battalion. These men were assigned 10 ladders, 2 crowbars, and 2 axes.^[108] The second column, consisting of 400 men under Colonel Francisco Duque, comprised 6 line infantry and 1 cazador company of the Toluca Battalion with the remaining 3 line infantry companies from the San Luis Battalion, who would have a combined 10 ladders. A third column, under Colonel Jose Marie Romero, contained 400 men from 12 line infantry companies, carrying 6 ladders. Colonel Juan Morales commanded the final column of 125 soldiers from light infantry and cazador companies, carrying 2 ladders.^[109] Four hundred reserves, including five grenadier companies, remained in camp under the authority of Santa Anna, while the Mexican cavalry were positioned around the Alamo to prevent escape of either Texans or Mexican soldiers.^[109][110] Each rifleman was assigned four rounds of ammunition and two flints, while grenadiers and scouts were given six rounds of ammunition each.^[110] Despite the bitter cold, the soldiers were ordered not to wear overcoats, which could impede their movements.^[109] Clouds concealed the moon, and thus the movements of the soldiers.^[111]

At 5:30 a.m., Santa Anna gave the order for the soldiers to begin the assault. They silently moved forward, with veterans positioned on the outside of the columns to better control the new recruits in the middle. Cos and his men approached the northwest corner of the Alamo,^[112] while Duque led his men from the northwest to the breach in the north wall of the Alamo.^[113] The column commanded by Romero marched towards the east wall, and Morales's column aimed for the low parapet by the chapel. In front of each column ranged several lines of light infantry, poised to "pick off any defenders who showed their heads".^[113] Although the Texans had posted three sentinals outside the walls, the men had fallen asleep and were killed before they could give an alert.^[113][114] Within the Alamo, only Captain John Baugh had remained awake.^[114]

When the Mexican soldiers noticed Santa Anna arriving at his position, they began shouting "Viva Santa Anna! Viva the Republic!".^[107] Jose Maria Gonzales, the bugler for the Zapadores Battalion, then sounded "Attention", then "Charge", then El Degüello, which signified that no quarter would be offered the defenders.^[107][115] The bugle anthems were soon repeated by bands from the other units.^[115] Baugh gave the alarm, and the Texians began rushing to their posts.^[114] Most of the noncombatants gathered in the church sacristy for safety; according to Susana Dickinson, before running to his post Crockett stopped briefly in the chapel to pray.^[116] As Travis ran to his post, he shouted, "Come on boys, the Mexicans are upon us and we'll give them hell!"^[113] and, as he passed a group of Tejanos, "!No rendirse, muchachos!" ("No surrender, boys").^[115] By this point, the Mexican army was already within musket range.^[113] Each Texian had four or five pre-loaded rifles with him, and began immediately firing into the oncoming Mexican army.^[115]

In the initial moments of the assault, Mexican troops were at a disadvantage. In their column formation, only the front rows of soldiers at a time could safely fire.^[117] Perhaps not realizing this, the untrained recruits in the ranks "blindly fir[ed] their guns", and injured or killed the troops in front of them.^[118] The tight concentration of troops also offered an excellent target for the Texian artillery.^[117] Lacking canister shot, Texians filled their cannon with any metal they could find, including door hinges, nails, and chopped-up horseshoes, essentially turning the cannon into giant shotguns.^[113] According to the diary of José Enrique de la Peña, "a single cannon volley did away with half the company of chasseurs from Toluca".^[119] Mexican Colonel Duque fell from his horse after suffering a wound in his thigh and was almost trampled by his own men. General Manuel Castrillon quickly assumed command of Duque's column.^[120]

Although some in the front of the Mexican ranks wavered, soldiers in the rear pushed them on.^[117] Soldiers of the first two columns gathered against the west and north walls, protected from Texian artillery and rifle fire.^[120] Some Texians leaned over the walls to fire into the massed troops. This left them exposed to Mexican fire. Travis was one of the first defenders to dies; struck in the head with a musket ball as he discharged both barrels of his shotgun into the soldiers below, Travis fell down the artillery ramp.^[117] Mexican Sergeant Becerra later reported that "Travis died like a brave man with his rifle in his hand at the back of a cannon."^[121] Most of the Mexican ladders did not make it to the walls, as their bearers either died or escaped;^[122] those that arrived were poorly made.^[123] The few soldiers who were able to climb the ladders were quickly killed or beaten back. As the Texians discharged their previously loaded rifles, they found it increasinly difficult to reload while attempting to keep the walls free of ladders.^[120]

At the north end of the Alamo, the Mexican columns withdrew. Morales's column at the south retreated into huts near the southwest corner of the mission. The Mexican army regrouped and attacked again and were again repulsed. Now fifteen minutes into the battle, they attacked a third time.^[117][120] During the third strike, Romero's third column, aiming for the east wall, were exposed to cannon fire and shifted to the north, mingling with the second column.^[120] Cos's column, under fire from Texians on the west wall, also veered north, intermingling the three columns.^[123] When Santa Anna saw that the bulk of his army was massed against the north wall, he thought the army was being routed; "panicked", he sent the reserves into the same area.^[124] The Mexican soldiers closest to the north wall realized that a ladder was not necessary, as the makeshift wall contained may gaps and toeholds. One of the first to scale the 12 feet (3.7 m) wall was General Juan Amador; at his challenge, his men began swarming up the all. Amador located the postern in the north wall and opened it, allowing Mexican soldiers to pour into the complex.^[122] The west wall had few defenders, and men in Cos's column began climbing through gun ports or boosting each other over the 11 feet (3.4 m) walls.^[125] As the Texian defenders abandoned the north wall and the northern end of the west wall,^[122][125] Texian gunners at the south end of the mission turned their cannon toward the north and began firing into the incoming Mexican soldiers. This left the south end of the mission unprotected, and Morales's men left the huts where they had taken refuge and raced to the mision. Within minutes they had climbed the walls and killed the gunners, gaining control of the Alamo's 18-lb cannon.^[111] By this time, Romero's men had taken the east wall of the compound and were pouring in through the cattle pen.^[125]

[edit] Interior fighting

As previously planned, most of the Texians fell back to the barracks and the chapel. During the siege, Texians had carved holes in many of the walls of these rooms so that they would be able to fire. In the chapel, Almeron Dickinson briefly left his post at the cannon to run to the sacristy, where he yelled to his wife, "Great God, Sue, the Mexicans are inside our walls! If they spare you, save my child."^[123] After quickly kissing his wife goodbye, Dickinson returned to his post.^[123] The defenders in the cattle pen retreated into the horse corral. Those carrying weapons fired into Romero's column.^[125] With no time to reload, the small band of Texians, including Alamo quartermaster Eliel Melton, then scrambled over the low wall, circled behind the church and raced on foot for the east prairie, where no Mexican soldiers could be seen.^{[123][125][126]} Sesma's cavalry was waiting, however, and attacked. Dickinson and his artillery crew turned a cannon around and fired into the cavalry, probably inflicting some casualties. Nevertheless, all but one of these Texians were thought to have been killed by lance; the last man was shot while hiding under a bush.^[126] Unable to reach the barracks, another group of Texians, stationed along the west wall, charged west for the San Antonio River. When the cavalry charged, the Texians took cover and began firing froma ditch. Sesma was forced to send reinforcement, and the Texians were eventually killed. Sesma reported that this skirmish involved 50 Texians, but Edmondson believes that number was inflated.^[127]

Crockett and his men were also too far from the barracks to be able to take shelter,.^[128] and were the last remaining group within the mission to be in the open. The men defended the low wall in front of the church, using their rifles as clubs and relying on knives. After a volley of fire from Mexican soldiers and a wave of Mexican soldiers with bayonets, the few remaining Texians in this group fell back toward the church.^[127] The Mexican army now controlled all of the outer walls and the interior of the Alamo compound except for the church and rooms along the east and west walls.^[129] Lieutenant Jose Maria Torres of the Zapadores Battalion spied a Texian flag waving from the roof of one building and joined Lieutenant Damasio Martinez in climbing the building to replace the flag. Three other Mexican soldiers had died trying to do the same thing, and Martinez was shot as he climbed. Torres managed to raise the flag of Mexico before being mortally wounded.^[130]

Although the initial battle had lasted just over 20 minutes, it took another hour for the Mexican army to have complete control over the Alamo.^[131] The remaining defenders were ensconced in the barracks rooms. Each room had only one door which led into the courtyard^[132] and which had been "buttressed by semicircular parapets of dirt secured with cowhides".^[122] Some of the rooms even had trenches dug into the floor to provide some cover for the defenders.^[131] In the confusion, the Texians had neglected to spike their cannons before retreating. Mexican soldiers turned the cannons around and began blasting in doors of the rooms.^[122] As each door was blown off, Mexican soldiers would fire a volley of muskets into the dark room, then charge into the room for hand-to-hand combat. De la Pena's diary remarked that some Texians hung white flags through the doorways of their barracks rooms, but that they had no intentions of surrending; a Mexican soldier who entered the room without firing would find himself attacked.^[132] It is likely that the defenders in the most distant rooms could hear the fighting at the other end of the building but they were forced to wait for their turn to fight.^[132]

Bowie's family, Gertrudis Navarro, Juana Navarro Alsbury and her son, were hiding in one of the rooms along the west wall. Navarro opened the door to their room to signal that they meant no harm.^[130] When Mexican soldiers threatened them, a Texian defender^[133] charged into the room to defend them; he was quickly killed, as was a young Tejano who took refuge in the room.^[130] A Nexican officer soon arrived and led the women to a spot along one of the walls where they would be relatively safe.^[134] Too sick to participate in the battle, Bowie remained in his sickbed in one of the rooms. Eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of Bowie's death. Some witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie's room, bayonet him, and carry him, alive, from the room.^[135] Other witnesses claimed that Bowie shot himself or was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head.^[136] Alcade Francisco Ruiz said that Bowie was found "dead in his bed."^[136] According to historian Wallace Chariton, the "most popular, and probably the most accurate"^[137] version is that Bowie died on his cot, "back braced against the wall, and using his pistols and his famous knife."^[136]

The last of the Texians to die were the eleven men manning the two 12-lb cannon in the chapel.^[130][138] The entrance to the church had been barricaded with sandbags, which the Texians were able to fire over. A shot from the 18-lb cannon destroyed the barricades, and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley. Dickinson's crew fired their cannon from the apse into the Mexican soldiers at the door. With no time to reload, the Texians, including Dickinson, Gregoria Esparza, and Bonham, grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death.^[139] Texian Robert Evans was master of ordnance and had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands. Wounded, he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder.^[139] If he had succeeded, the blast would have destroyed the church, killing the women and children hiding in the sacristy as well.^[140]

As soldiers approached the sacristy, one of the sons of defender Anthony Wolf stood to pull a blanket over his shoulders.^[139] In the dark, Mexican soldiers mistook him for an adult and killed him before realizing that the room contained only women and children. According to Edmondson, Wolf then ran into the room, grabbed his remaining son, and leaped with the child from the cannon ramp at the rear of the church; both were killed by musket shots before hitting the ground.^[141] Possibly the last Texian to die in battle was Jacob Walker,^[142] who attempted to hide behind Susannah Dickinson and the other women; four Mexican soldiers killed him in front of them.^[143] Another Texian, Brigido Guerrero, also sought refuge in the sacristy.^[139] Guerrero, who had deserted from the Mexican Army in December 1835, was spared after convincing the soldiers he was a prisoner of the Texians.^[144][141]

By 6:30 a.m. the battle for the Alamo was over.^[143] Mexican soldiers inspected each corpse, bayoneting any body that moved.^[141] Even with all of the Texians dead, Mexican soldiers continued to shoot, some killing each other in the confusion. Mexican generals were unable to stop the bloodlust and appealed to Santa Anna for help. Although he showed himself, the violence continued, and the buglers were finally ordered to sound a retreat. For 15 minutes after that, soldiers continued to fire into dead bodies.^[145]

[edit] Aftermath

When the firing ended, Santa Anna joined his men inside the Alamo.^[146] According to many accounts of the battle, between five and seven Texians surrendered during the battle, possibly to General Castrillon.^[147][148] Edmondson speculates that these men might have been sick or wounded and were therefore unable to fight.^[147] Incensed that his orders had been ignored, Santa Anna demanded the immediate execution of the survivors. Although Castrillon and several other officers refused to do so, staff officers who had not participated in the fighting drew their swords and killed the unarmed Texians.^[149] Weeks after the battle, stories began to circulate that Crockett was among those who surrendered and were executed.^[148] However, Ben, a former American slave who acted as cook for one of Santa Anna's officers, maintained that Crockett's body was found surrounded by "no less than sixteen Mexican corpses", with Crockett's knife buried in one of them.^[150] Historians disagree on which story is accurate. According to Petite, "every account of the Crockett surrender-execution story comes from an avowed antagonist (either on political or military grounds) of Santa Anna's. It is believed that many stories, such as the surrender and execution of Crockett, were created and spread in order to discredit Santa Anna and add to his role as villain."^[151]

After the scene inside the Alamo had calmed, Santa Anna ordered that the face of every corpse be wiped clean so that they could positively identify which soldiers were Mexican and which were Texian.^[145] According to Francisco Ruiz, possibly the alcade of Bexar, he was ordered by Santa Anna to identify the bodies of Travis, Bowie, and Crockett.^[147] Lindley believes that Ruiz was not in Bexar at the time.^[152] Joe was also asked to point out Travis's body.^[153] With the identifications complete, Santa Anna ordered that the Texian bodies be stacked and burned. The only exception was the body of Gregorio Esparza; his brother Francisco Esparza served in Santa Anna's army and received permission from Cos to give Gregorio a proper burial.^[153] In his initial report, Santa Anna claimed that 600 Texians had been killed, with only 70 Mexican soldiers killed and 300 wounded.^[153] His secretary, Ramon Martinez Caro, later remarked that he had not wished to make a false report but had done so under Santa Anna's orders.^[154] Other eyewitnesses claimed that between 182–257 Texians were killed. Francisco Ruiz counted 182 Texian bodies burned on the funeral pyre.^[155] A number of bodies were found in the fields north of the Alamo, likely those of men who had tried to escape but were killed by the cavalry.^[156] Some historians believe that at least one Texian, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped from the battle. Warnell died several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape as a courier.^[157][158]

Estimates of the number of Mexican soldiers who died ranged from 60–2000, with an additional 250–300 wounded.^[159] Most Alamo historians agree that 400–600 Mexicans were killed or wounded.^{[159][160][161]} This would represent about one-third of the Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which Todish remarks is "a tremendous casualty rate by any standards".^[159] Santa Anna reportedly told Captain Fernando Urizza that the battle "was but a small affair".^[162] Lieutenant Colonel José Juan Sanchez Navarro, however, remarked that "with another such victory as this, we'll go to the devil".^[159][163] Santa Anna ordered Ruiz to supervise the burial of the Mexican soldiers in the local cemetary, Campo Santo. Ruiz claimed that the graveyard was near full and that he instead threw some of the corpses in the river.^[153] However, in a report that Sam Houston filed on March 13, he said that all Mexicans were buried.^[164]

Santa Anna spared several others. Travis's slave, Joe and Sam, Bowie's freedman, were both spared because they were or had been slaves.^[156] Santa Anna hoped that by freeing these men, other slaves in Texas would support the Mexican government over the Texian rebellion.^[165] The surviving noncombatants were interviewed individually by Santa Anna on March 7. Impressed with Susanna Dickinson, Santa Anna offered to adopt her infant daughter Angelina and have the child educated in Mexico City. Susanna Dickinson refused the offer, which was not extended to Juana Navarro Alsbury for her son who was of similar age.^[159] Each woman was given a blanket and two silver pesos.^[166] The Tejano women were allowed to return to their homes in Bexar; Dickinson, her daughter, and Joe were sent to Gonzales, escorted by Ben.^[159] Before they were allowed to leave, Santa Anna ordered that the surviving members of the Mexican army parade in a grand review,^[167] in the hopes that Joe and Dickinson would deliver a warning to the remainder of the Texian forces that his army was unbeatable.^[159]

Travis's March 3 dispatch to the Texas provisional government on the morning of March 6. Unaware that the fort had fallen, delegate Robert Potter called for the convention to adjourn and march immediately to relieve the Alamo. Sam Houston convinced the delegates to remain in Washington-on-the-Brazos to develop a constitution and then left to take command of the volunteers that Colonel James C. Neill and Major R.M. "Three-Legged Willie" Williamson had been gathering in Gonzales. Houston arrived in Gonalez on March 11 to find 400 Texian volunteers waiting.^[168] Later that day, Andres Barcenas and Anselmo Bergaras arrived in Gonzales from Bexar to report that the Alamo had fallen with all men slain.^[169] Houston arrested the men as enemy spies in the hopes of halting a panic, and then sent scouts Deaf Smith and Henry Karnes to find out the truth. They travelled fewer than 20 miles (32 km) west before finding Susannah Dickinson and Joe.^[170] On hearing their news, Houston advised all civilians in the area to evacuate and ordered the army to retreat.^[171] This sparked a mass exodus of Texans from the Anglo settlements, including the government, which also fled east.^[172]

Despite their losses at the Alamo, the Mexican army in Texas outnumbered the Texian army by almost 6 to 1.^[173] Santa Anna assumed that all Texian resistance would crumble,^[174] and that Texian soldiers would quickly leave the province. He was, therefore, in no hurry to leave Bexar.^[175] However, the news of the Alamo's fall had the opposite affect, and men flocked to Houston's army.^[174] The New York Post editorialized that "had [Santa Anna] treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity, it would have been difficult if not impossible to awaken that general sympathy for the people of Texas which now impels so many adventurous and ardent spirits to throng to the aid of their brethern".^[176] Despite a strong wish among the Texian army to avenge their loss at the Alamo, for several weeks Houston led his army on a retreat into East Texas.^[177] On the afternoon of April 21, the Texian army attacked Santa Anna's camp near Lynchburg Ferry. The Mexican army was taken by surprise, and the Battle of San Jacinto was essentially over after 18 minutes. During the fighting, many of the Texian soldiers repeatedy cried "Remember the Alamo!"^[177] Santa Anna was captured the following day, and reportedly told Houston "That man may consider himself born to no common destiny who has conquered the Napoleon of the West. And now it remains for him to be generous to the vanquished.”^[178] Houston replied, "You should have remembered that at the Alamo".^[178] Santa Anna was forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the province, now known as the Republic of Texas.^[178]

[edit] Controversies

[edit] Line in the sand

A legend exists that on March 3, March 4, or March 5, Lieutenant Colonel Travis drew a line in the sand with his sword, and invited all those who were willing to stay (and, presumably, almost certainly to die) to cross over the line. According to one variant of the story, all but one Alamo defender crossed the line. Moses Rose (aka Louis or Lewis Rose), said to be a French soldier who had fought under Napoleon in Russia before arriving in Texas, allegedly slipped out of the Alamo. After evading the Mexican forces by moving at night, Rose is said to have taken shelter with the family of William P. Zuber to whom he told the tale of his escape. In 1873, Zuber's son published a version of the story, which has not been historically documented. This account is carried in numerous Texas histories, including Steven Kellerman's The Yellow Rose of Texas, the Journal of American Folklore, and numerous other histories of the time. A moving account of this "line in the dust" story and Bowie's being carried over in a cot can be found online in a city guide to San Antonio and the Alamo shrine.

[edit] Legacy

As the Mexican army retreated from Texas following the Battle of San Jacinto, they tore down many of the walls and burned the palisade which Crockett had defended. Within the next several decades, various buildings in the complex were torn down, and in 1849 a gable was added to the top of the chapel.^[179] Today, the remnants of the Alamo are near the San Antonio town center. The church building remains standing and serves as an official state shrine to the Texian defenders.^[180] As the 20th century began, many Texans advocated razing the remaining building. A wealthy rancher's daughter, Clara Driscoll, purchased the building to serve as a museum. The Texas Legislature later bought the property and appointed the Daughters of the Republic of Texas as permanent caretakers.^[181] In front of the church, in the center of Alamo Plaza, stands a cenotaph, designed by Pompeo Coppini and erected in 1939, which commemorates the Texians who died during the battle.^[182] According to Bill Groneman's Battlefields of Texas, the Alamo has become "the most popular tourist site in Texas".^[180]

[edit] Popular culture

Many of the Mexican officers who participated in the battle left memoirs, although some were not written until decades after the battle. Among those who provided written accounts of the battle were Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Vicente Filisola, José Enrique de la Peña, Jose Juan Sanchez Navarro, Juan N. Almonte, and Francisco Becerra.^[183] Texians Juan Seguin and John Sutherland also left memoirs,^[184] although some historians believe Sutherland was not at the Alamo and wrote his memoirs from heresay.^[185] The first report of the names of the Texian victims of the battle came in the March 24, 1836 issue of the Telegraph and Texas Register. The 115 names on the list came from John Smith and Gerald Navan, who had left as couriers.^[186] In 1843, former Texas Ranger and amateur historian John Henry Brown wrote and published the first history of the battle, a pamphlet called The Fall of the Alamo. He followed this in 1853 with a second pamphlet called Facts of the Alamo, Last Days of Crockett and Other Sketches of Texas. No copies of the pamphlets have survived.^[187] The next major treatment of the battle was Reuben Potter's The Fall of the Alamo, published in The Magazine of American History in 1878. Potter based his work on interviews with many of the survivors of the Battle of the Alamo.^[183][187] One of the most used secondary sources about the Alamo is Amelia W. Williams's doctoral dissertation, Critical Study of the Siege of the Alamo and of the Personnel of Its Defenders. Completed in 1931, it attempted to positively identify all of the Texians who died during the battle. Her list was used to choose the names carved into the cenotaph memorial in 1936.^[188] Several historians, including Thomas Ricks Lindley, Thomas Lloyd Miller, and Richard G. Santos, believe her list included men who had not died at the Alamo.^[189] Despite the errors in some of her work, Williams collect a large amount of information and her work serves as a starting point for many historians.^[190] The first full-length, non-fiction book covering the battle was not published until 1948, when John Myers Myers's The Alamo was released.^[191]

According to Todish et al, "there can be little doubt that most Americans have probably formed many of their opinions on what occurred at the Alamo not from books, but from the various movies made about the battle."^[192] The first film version of the battle appeared in 1911, when Gaston Melies directed The Immortal Alamo, which has since been lost. Through the next four decades several other movies were released, variously focusing on Davy Crocket, Almeron Dickinson, and Louis Rose. The Alamo achieved prominence on television in 1955 with Walt Disney's Davy Crockett: King of the Wild Frontier, which was largely based on myth.^[193] In the early 1950s, John Wayne began developing a film based on the Battle of the Alamo. When he left his contract with Republic Pictures he was forced to leave behind a partial script. Republic Pictures had the script finished and developed into the 1955 movie The Last Command. Although the film had its historical innacuracies, it was the most detailed of the films on the Texas Revolution.^[194] Wayne continued to develop an Alamo movie, resulting in the 1960 film The Alamo, starring Wayne as Davy Crockett. Although screenwriter James Edward Grant claimed to have done extensive historical research, according to Todish "there is not a single scene in The Alamo which corresponds to an historically verifiable incident", and historians J. Frank Dobie and Lon Tinkle demanded that their names be removed from the credits as historical advisors.^[194] The set built for the movie, Alamo Village, includes a replica of the Alamo Mission and the city of San Antonio and is still used as an active movie set.^[194]

As the 150th anniversary of the battle approached in the 1980s, several additional movies were made about the Alamo, including the made-for-television movie The Alamo: Thirteen Days to Glory, which Nofi regards as the most historically accurate of all Alamo films.^[193] The movie Todish calls "the best theatrical film ever made about the Alamo" was also filmed in the 1980s.^[195] Filmed in IMAX format using historical reenactors instead of professional actors, Alamo ... The Price of Freedom is shown only in San Antonio, with several views per day at a theater near the Alamo.^[195] It runs only 45 minutes^[195] but has "an attention to detail and intensity that are remarkable".^[196] In 2004 another film, also called The Alamo, was released. Described by CNN as possibly "the most character-driven of all the movies made on the subject", the movie starred Billy Bob Thornton as Crockett, Dennis Quaid as Sam Houston, and Jason Patric as Bowie.^[197]

A number of songwriters have also been inspired by the Battle of the Alamo. Tennessee Ernie Ford's "The Ballad of Davy Crockett" spent 16 weeks on the country music charts, peaking at number 4 in 1955.^[198] Marty Robbins recorded a version of the song "The Ballad of the Alamo" in 1960 which spent 13 weeks on the pop charts, peaking at number 34.^[199]

[edit] See also

• List of Alamo defenders
• List of Texan survivors of the Battle of the Alamo
• List of Texas Revolution battles
• Famous Last stands

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] References

• Barr, Alwyn (1996), Black Texans: A history of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995 (2nd ed.), Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 080612878X 
• Chariton, Wallace O. (1990), Exploring the Alamo Legends, Dallas, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 9781556222559 
• Edmondson, J.R. (2000), The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts, Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 1-55622-678-0 
• Groneman, Bill (1990), Alamo Defenders, A Genealogy: The People and Their Words, Austin, TX: Eakin Press, ISBN 089015757X 
• Groneman, Bill (1996), Eyewitness to the Alamo, Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 1556225024 
• Groneman, Bill (1998). Battlefields of Texas. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 9781556225710. 
• Hardin, Stephen L. (1994), Texian Iliad, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-73086-1 
• Hopewell, Clifford (1994), James Bowie Texas Fighting Man: A Biography, Austin, TX: Eakin Press, ISBN 0890158819 
• Lindley, Thomas Ricks (2003), Alamo Traces: New Evidence and New Conclusions, Lanham, MD: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 1556229836 
• Lord, Walter (1961), A Time to Stand, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 0803279027 
• Manchaca, Martha (2001), Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans, The Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long Series in Latin American and Latino Art and Culture, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, ISBN 0292752539 
• Myers, John Myers (1948), The Alamo, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, ISBN 0803257791 
• Nofi, Albert A. (1992), The Alamo and the Texas War of Independence, September 30, 1835 to April 21, 1836: Heroes, Myths, and History, Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, Inc., ISBN 0938289101 
• Petite, Mary Deborah (1999), 1836 Facts about the Alamo and the Texas War for Independence, Mason City, IA: Savas Publishing Company, ISBN 188281035X 
• Scott, Robert (2000), After the Alamo, Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 9781556226915 
• Shackford, James Atkins (September 1994). David Crockett: The Man and the Legend. Bison Books. ISBN 978-0803292307. 
• Tinkle, Lon (1985), 13 Days to Glory: The Siege of the Alamo, College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, ISBN 0890962383 . Reprint. Originally published: New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958
• Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry & Spring, Ted (1998), Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution, Austin, TX: Eakin Press, ISBN 9781571681522 

[edit] Further reading

• Borroel,Roger, "THE TEXAN REVOLUTION OF 1836", La Villita Pbns., ISBN 1-928792-09-X.
• Crisp, James E., Sleuthing the Alamo, Oxford University Press (2005) ISBN 0-19-516349-4
• Davis, William C., Lone Star Rising: The Revolutionary Birth of the Texas Republic, Free Press (2004) ISBN 0-684-86510-6
• Hardin, Stephen L., The Alamo 1836, Santa Anna's Texas Campaign, Osprey Campaign Series #89, Osprey Publishing (2001).

[edit] External links

• Official website for the Alamo

Coordinates: 29°25′32″N, 98°29′10″W