Aviation and the environment

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Aviation impacts the environment because aircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions, and contribute to climate change^[1][2] and global dimming.^[3]

Modern turbofan and turboprop engines are considerably more fuel-efficient and less polluting than earlier models. Despite this, the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation, offsetting some of the reductions achieved by automobiles. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006.^[4]

In the context of climate change and peak oil, there is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account.^[5]

Contents 1 Climate change 1.1 Mechanisms 1.2 Total effect 1.3 Potential reductions 1.4 Managing demand 1.5 Kyoto Protocol 1.6 Emissions trading 2 Noise 3 Air quality 4 References 5 See also 6 External links

[edit] Climate change

Like all human activities involving combustion, most forms of aviation release carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the earth's atmosphere, very likely contributing to the acceleration of global warming (exceptions are forms of aviation that do not involve combustion, such as hang gliding, paragliding, winch-launched gliders — where the winch is not powered by fossil fuels — and human- or other non-combustion powered flight).

In addition to the CO₂ released by most aircraft in flight through the burning of fuels such as Jet-A (turbine aircraft) or Avgas (piston aircraft), the aviation industry also contributes greenhouse gas emissions from ground airport vehicles and those used by passengers and staff to access airports, as well as through emissions generated by the production of energy used in airport buildings, the manufacture of aircraft and the construction of airport infrastructure.

While the principal greenhouse gas emission from powered aircraft in flight is CO₂, other emissions may include nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, (together termed oxides of nitrogen or NO_x), water vapour and particulates (soot and sulfate particles), sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide (which bonds with oxygen to become CO₂ immediately upon release), incompletely-burned hydrocarbons, tetra-ethyl lead (piston aircraft only), and radicals such as hydroxyl, depending on the type of aircraft in use.^{[citation needed]}

The contribution of civil aircraft-in-flight to global CO₂ emissions has been estimated at around 2%.^[6] However, in the case of high-altitude airliners which frequently fly near or in the stratosphere, non-CO₂ altitude-sensitive effects may increase the total impact on anthropogenic (man-made) climate change significantly —^{[citation needed]} this problem is not present for aircraft that routinely operate at lower altitudes well inside the troposphere, such as balloons, airships, helicopters, most light aircraft, and many commuter aircraft.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Mechanisms

Subsonic aircraft-in-flight contribute to climate change^[6] in four ways:

Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

CO₂ emissions from aircraft-in-flight are the most significant and best understood^[7] element of aviation's total contribution to climate change. The level and effects of CO₂ emissions are currently believed to be broadly the same regardless of altitude (i.e they have the same atmospheric effects as ground based emissions). In 1992, emissions of CO₂ from aircraft were estimated at around 2% of all such anthropogenic emissions, though CO₂ concentration attributable to aviation in 1992 was around 1% of the total anthropogenic increase, because emissions occurred only in the last 50 years.^[8]

Oxides of nitrogen (NO_x)

At the high altitudes flown by large jet airliners around the tropopause, emissions of NO_x are particularly effective in forming ozone (O₃) in the upper troposphere. High altitude (8-13km) NO_x emissions result in greater concentrations of O₃ than surface NO_x emissions, and these in turn have a greater global warming effect. The effect of O₃ concentrations are regional and local (as opposed to CO₂ emissions, which are global).

NO_x emissions also reduce ambient levels of methane, another greenhouse gas, resulting in a climate cooling effect. This effect does not, however, offset the O₃ forming effect of NO_x emissions. It is now believed that aircraft sulfur and water emissions in the stratosphere tend to deplete O₃, partially offsetting the NO_x-induced O₃ increases. These effects have not been quantified.^[8] This problem does not apply to aircraft that fly lower in the troposphere, such as light aircraft or many commuter aircraft.

Water vapor (H₂O)

Very large aircraft-in-flight at high altitude emit water vapour, a greenhouse gas, which under certain atmospheric conditions forms Condensation trails, or contrails. Contrails are visible line clouds that form in cold, humid atmospheres and are thought to have a global warming effect (though one less significant than either CO₂ emissions or NO_x induced effects) SPM-2. Contrails are extremely rare from lower-altitude aircraft, or from propeller aircraft or rotorcraft.

Cirrus clouds have been observed to develop after the persistent formation of contrails and have been found to have a global warming effect over-and-above that of contrail formation alone. There is a degree of scientific uncertainty over the contribution of contrail and cirrus cloud formation to global warming and attempts to estimate aviation's overall climate change contribution do not tend to include its effects on cirrus cloud enhancement.^[7]

Particulates

Least significant is the release of soot and sulfate particles. Soot absorbs heat and has a warming effect; sulfate particles reflect radiation and have a small cooling effect. In addition, they can influence the formation and properties of clouds.^[9] All aircraft powered by combustion will release some amount of soot.

[edit] Total effect

In attempting to aggregate and quantify these effects the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that aviation’s total climate impact is some 2-4 times that of its CO₂ emissions alone (excluding the potential impact of cirrus cloud enhancement).^[6] This is measured as radiative forcing. While there is uncertainty about the exact level of impact of NO_x and water vapour, governments have accepted the broad scientific view that they do have an effect. Accordingly, more recent UK government policy statements have stressed the need for aviation to address its total climate change impacts and not simply the impact of CO₂.^[10]

The IPCC has estimated that aviation is responsible for around 3.5% of anthropogenic climate change, a figure which includes both CO₂ and non-CO₂ induced effects. The IPCC has produced scenarios estimating what this figure could be in 2050. The central case estimate is that aviation’s contribution could grow to 5% of the total contribution by 2050 if action is not taken to tackle these emissions, though the highest scenario is 15%^[6]. Moreover, if other industries achieve significant cuts in their own greenhouse gas emissions, aviation’s share as a proportion of the remaining emissions could also rise. Per passenger kilometre, figures from British Airways suggest carbon dioxide emissions of 0.1kg for large jet airliners (a figure which does not account for the production of other pollutants or condensation trails).^[11]

[edit] Potential reductions

Modern jet aircraft are significantly more fuel efficient (and thus emit less CO₂ in particular) than 30 years ago. ^[12]. Moreover, manufacturers have forecast and are committed to achieving reductions in both CO₂ and NO_x emissions with each new generation of design of aircraft and engine.^[13] The accelerated introduction of more modern aircraft therefore represents a major opportunity to reduce emissions per passenger kilometre flown.^{[citation needed]}

Other opportunities arise from the optimisation of airline timetables, route networks and flight frequencies to increase load factors (minimise the number of empty seats flown), ^[14] together with the optimisation of airspace.

Another possible reduction of the climate-change impact is the limitation of cruise altitude of aircraft. This would lead to a significant reduction in high-altitude contrails for a marginal trade-off of increased flight time and an estimated 4% increase in CO₂ emissions. Drawbacks of this solution include very limited airspace capacity to do this, especially in Europe and North America and increased fuel burn due to jet aircraft being less efficient at lower cruise altitudes.^[15]

However, the total number of passenger kilometres is growing at a faster rate than manufacturers can reduce emissions, and at present there is no readily available alternative to burning kerosene. The growth in the aviation sector is therefore likely to continue to generate an increasing volume of greenhouse gas emissions. However some scientists and companies such as GE Aviation and Virgin Fuels are researching biofuel technology for use in jet aircraft.^[16] As part of this test Virgin Atlantic Airways flew a Boeing 747 from London Heathrow Airport to Amsterdam Schiphol Airport on 24 February 2008, with one engine burning a combination of coconut oil and babassu oil.^[16] Greenpeace's chief scientist Doug Parr said that the flight was "high-altitude greenwash" and that producing organic oils to make biofuel could lead to deforestation and a large increase in greenhouse gas emissions.^[16]

The majority of the world's aircraft are not large jetliners but smaller piston aircraft, and many are capable of using ethanol as a fuel with only minor modification.^[17] While ethanol also releases CO₂ during combustion, the plants cultivated to make it draw that same CO₂ out of the atmosphere while they are growing, making the fuel closer to climate-change-neutral. The main problems with burning ethanol as a fuel are that it takes more energy to produce than is returned, it displaces food crops and thus raises the price of food and causes soil degradation.^[18][19]

While they are not suitable for long-haul or transoceanic flights, turboprop aircraft used for commuter flights bring two significant benefits: they often burn considerably less fuel per passenger mile, and they typically fly at lower altitudes, well inside the tropopause, where there are no concerns about ozone or contrail production. For even shorter flights, air taxi service using newer, fuel-efficient four- or six-seat light piston aircraft could provide an even lower environmental impact.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Managing demand

An alternative method for reducing the environmental impact of aviation is to constrain demand for air travel. The UK study Predict and Decide - Aviation, climate change and UK policy, notes that a 10 per cent increase in fares generates a 5 to 15 per cent reduction in demand, and recommends that the British government should manage demand rather than provide for it.^[20] This would be accomplished via a strategy that presumes "… against the expansion of UK airport capacity" and constrains demand by the use of economic instruments to price air travel less attractively.^[21] A study published by the campaign group Aviation Environment Federation (AEF) concludes that by levying £9 billion of additional taxes the annual rate of growth in demand in the UK for air travel would be reduced to 2 per cent.^[22] The ninth report of the House of Commons Environmental Audit Select Committee, published in July 2006, recommends that the British government rethinks its airport expansion policy and considers ways, particularly via increased taxation, in which future demand can be managed in line with industry performance in achieving fuel efficiencies, so that emissions are not allowed to increase in absolute terms.^[23]

[edit] Kyoto Protocol

Greenhouse gas emissions from fuel consumption in international aviation, in contrast to those from domestic aviation and from energy use by airports, are not assigned under the first round of the Kyoto Protocol, neither are the non-CO₂ climate effects. In place of agreement, Governments agreed to work through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to limit or reduce emissions and to find a solution to the allocation of emissions from international aviation in time for the second round of Kyoto in 2007.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Emissions trading

As part of that process the ICAO has endorsed the adoption of an open emissions trading system to meet CO₂ emissions reduction objectives. Guidelines for the adoption and implementation of a global scheme are currently being developed, and will be presented to the ICAO Assembly in 2007,^[24] although the prospects of a comprehensive inter-governmental agreement on the adoption of such a scheme are uncertain.

Within the European Union, however, the European Commission has resolved to incorporate aviation in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).^[25] The Commissions plans to make legislative proposals by the end of 2006, with a possible view to incorporating aviation into Phase II of the ETS from 2008. However, a number of design and implementation issues are yet to be resolved^[26] and some within the airline industry have expressed doubts about whether this deadline can be achieved.^[27]

[edit] Noise

Main article: Aircraft noise

Aircraft noise is seen by advocacy groups as being very hard to get attention and action on. The fundamental issues are increased traffic at larger airports and airport expansion at smaller and regional airports.^[28]

[edit] Air quality

Main article: Air pollution

[edit] References

[edit] See also

• Aviation noise
• Contrails in climate
• Electric aircraft
• Flying Matters
• Global warming
• Natural environment

[edit] External links

• Partnership for AiR Transportation Noise and Emissions Reduction
• Commercial aviation industry environmental initiatives
• Aviation Environment Federation
• AirportWatch
• Flight Pledge
• GreenSkies Alliance
• Observer article on people choosing not to fly
• EU Parliament to Tighten Airline Emissions Rules
• Air Transport Industry discussion on climate change
• Centre for Air Transport and the Environment
• Sustainable Aviation
• Air Transport Action Group*European Federation for Transport and Environment (T&E) 'Clearing the Air: The Myth and Reality of Aviation and Climate Change'
• GreenSkies Alliance
• Flight Emission Calculator

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