Water supply and sanitation in Brazil

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Brazil: Water and Sanitation
Data
Water coverage (broad definition) 90%
Sanitation coverage (broad definition) 75%
Continuity of supply (%) n/a
Average urban water use (l/c/d) 143
Average urban water and sanitation tariff (US$/m3) 0.82 (2006)[1]
Share of household metering 89% (2006) [2]
Share of collected wastewater treated 32%
Annual investment in WSS US$14/capita (2006)
Share of self-financing by utilities 51% (2004)
Share of tax-financing n/a
Share of external financing n/a
Institutions
Decentralization to municipalities Substantial
National water and sanitation company None
Water and sanitation regulator State-level multi-sector
Responsibility for policy setting Ministry of Cities
Sector law Yes
Number of urban service providers 26 State Companies, >1500 municipalities for water, >4500 municipalities for sanitation
Number of rural service providers n/a

Water supply and sanitation in Brazil has proved to be a resilient and resourceful sector, despite tremendous challenges and persistent inequalities in the sector. A lot has been achieved during the past decades, including a sustained improvement in efficiency and improved access. Access to improved water supply increased from 83% in 1990 to 90% in 2004, and access to improved sanitation increased from 71% to 75%.[3] Nevertheless, more needs to be done in order to reduce glaring inequalities and to attain the water supply and sanitation Millennium Development Goals, which Brazil would only achieve in 2054 if the current level of investment was maintained.

Contents

[edit] Access

Urban (84% of the population) Rural (16% of the population) Total
Water Broad definition 96% 57% 90%
House connections 91% 17% 79%
Sanitation Broad definition 83% 37% 75%
Sewerage 53% 5% 45%

Source: Joint Monitoring Program WHO/UNICEF(JMP/2006). Data for water and sanitation based on National Housing Sample Study (Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios, 2003) and the Census (2000).

Access to improved water supply in Brazil stood at 90% and access to improved sanitation at 75% in 2004. [4] Coverage is significantly higher in urban areas, where 84% of Brazil’s population live. Urban coverage is 96% for water and 83% for improved sanitation, including 53% access to sewerage, the remainder being accounted for by on-site sanitation. Coverage in rural areas, where 16% of Brazil’s population lives, is much lower. It stands at 57% for improved water supply and only 37% for improved sanitation. [5] Geographically coverage is lowest in the country’s poorest regions: particularly in predominantly rural North, Northeast, and Center-West.

[edit] Water use

Clean drinking water...not self-evident for everyone
Clean drinking water...not self-evident for everyone

Average water use in Brazil for users served by utilities fell from 217 to 143 liter/capita/day over the past years (-34%). Water use in Brazil thus is lower than the excessively high water use found in many other Latin American countries and is now much closer to levels in Central Europe. Increased metering and a higher share of low-income users with low per capita water use probably played a role in the reduced average water use.

[edit] Reaching the poor

Favelas in Rio de Janeiro.
Favelas in Rio de Janeiro.

Reaching poor urban neighborhoods remains a challenge. This frequently requires non-conventional approaches. While Brazil has pioneered the use of low cost appropriate technology (such as condominial sewers) and active community participation it still faces the challenge of the many informal peri-urban settlements, called favelas, often situated on steep slopes or in flood plains. An example of how the government addresses these issues is the World Bank-supported Low Income Sanitation Technical Assistance Project PROSANEAR.

[edit] Pollution

Brazil’s major and medium size metropolitan areas face increasing problems of water pollution. Coastal cities such as Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Recife suffer effects of upstream residential and industrial sewage contaminating feeder rivers, lakes, and the ocean. In 2000, only 35% of collected wastewater received any treatment.

For example, according to the environmental sanitation company of the state of São Paulo,Cetesb, the Tietê River, which runs through the São Paulo metropolitan area (17 million inhabitants), has returned to its 1990 pollution levels. Despite the support from the IDB and Caixa Economica Federalin a US$400 million clean up effort, the level of dissolved oxygen has returned to the critical level of 1990 at 0 mg per liter due to increased levels of unregulated sewerage, phosphorus, and ammonia nitrogen discharged into the river.[6] Although the city of São Paulo treats 63.9% of the collected sewerage, the surrounding cities of Sao Bernardo (19.7%), Diadema (11.3%), and Guarulhos (0%) treat much less.[7] The state water company Sabesp projects that a minimum of R$3 billion would be necessary to despollute the river.[8]

[edit] History and recent developments

[edit] Municipal service provision (prior to 1968)

Until 1968, the responsibility for water supply and sanitation was municipal. Service providers were municipal water and drainage companies, each of them with different financial and administrative structures. At that time coverage rates were low and there was no institutional structure to plan and finance an increase in coverage on the necessary scale.[9]

[edit] The National Water Supply and Sanitation Plan PLANASA (1968-1986)

To address these challenge, the National Water Supply and Sanitation System was created in 1968. It consisted of the National Water Supply and Sanitation Plan (Planasa); the National Housing Bank (Banco Nacional de Habitação - BNH); the Employment Guarantee Fund (FGTS), the main source of funds for Planasa; and the newly formed state water and sanitation companies.

Planasa was the first federal government initiative in water and sanitation in Brazil. BNH managed the FGTS and, by extension, national urban development policy.

As part of Planasa, beginning in 1971 State Water and Sanitation Companies (CESBs) were set up in every Brazilian state. Until 1985, only these public companies could obtain financing from BNH for water supply and sanitation, being responsible for construction, operation and maintenance. In order for CESBs to operate in their respective states, they had to obtain municipal licences to run the services under long-term contracts, because the Brazilian Constitution had already established that the power to grant licences for public water and sanitation services belonged to the municipalities.

The favorable performance of the economy, the scale of the system being installed, the amount of funds available, the practice of cross subsidies within the state companies, and the subsidised interest rates on loans, all helped services to expand extremely quickly. In 1980, the population covered by Planasa with water supply services was around 50 million, or 42% of Brazil's total population of 119 million, at the time. Planasa's drainage and sewerage services attended around 17.5 million people. In 1990, when the total population was 146.8 million, state water and sanitation companies covered around 83 million persons, and drainage and sewerage reached 29 million.

This coverage expansion happened unequally. Investment in water services was given priority because it was less costly and produced a quicker return through water charges. In addition, although there was significant expansion of services all over Brazil, Planasa gave priority to the country's richer regions of the South and South East; most of the investment was concentrated in the larger cities, and within these cities, in the better-off sections of the population.

Not all municipalities joined Planasa. Some of them remained effectively autonomous, operating through municipal companies, i.e. companies where the majority shareholding was owned by the municipality and the municipal administration was entirely responsible for the service through an administrative department or an autonomous body. About 20% of the country's municipalities adopted this management system, most of them in the South-eastern region, particularly Minas Gerais and São Paulo.

Other municipalities retained partial autonomy, linked to a Health Ministry entity, now known as the National Health Foundation (Funasa). They operate in accordance with the model established by the Special Service for Public Health over 40 years ago. Services are operated by a municipal agency which is administratively, technically and financially autonomous, but in which there is considerable input from Funasa, whose functions range from administration to technical assistance. In 1993 about 6% of Brazilian municipalities functioned under this system in 625 locations. They are largely concentrated in the North-eastern region.[9]

Planasa coincided with the period of military government in Brazil (1964-1985).(see also History of Brazil) When democracy was re-established and a new constitution was passed in 1988, the roles of various stakeholders in the sector were redefined, with more emphasis given on the role of municipalities.

[edit] Gradual municipalization, some private sector participation

Main article: Water privatization in Brazil

As from the nineties, under the impulses of the State reform processes, an important re-structuring has been taking place in the administrative set-up of the Brazilian water and sanitation services, significantly changing the institutional structure that had been established by Planasa.

In 1986 the Housing Bank BNH was dissolved and management of the FGTS, the key financing instrument for the sector, was passed on to the Caixa Econômica Federal (CEF), under the supervision and control of the Supervisory Council of the FGTS (CCFGTS). However, the sector policy functions of BNH were not passed on to CEF and national policy for sanitation was the responsibility of various bodies in charge of urban management.

The Constitution of 1988 does not clearly assign the responsibility for water supply and sanitation to either munitipalities or states. According to the document, both can implement programs, provided the basic guidelines issued by the Federal Government are followed.

State governments have adopted different strategies during the 1990s to offer a wider range of services. Some state governments, such as that of Rio de Janeiro and of Espírito Santo, have been attempting to grant concessions to the private sector. Other States, such as Mato Grosso do Sul, returned the operation of services to the municipalities, a strategy, which, ultimately will mean to abolish the state operator. Further, other States, such as São Paulo, Paraná and Ceará, took a series of measures to strengthen their state company. In this case, the companies restructured their operational standards to maintain and expand their markets, improving their efficiency. This strategy also included diversifying the origin of the funds, opening the company's capital to private investors, as well as contracting out the management of systems to local private operators.[9]

Since 1996 some 65 municipalities in 10 states have granted concessions to private operators, serving about 7 million people, or 4% of the population of Brazil.

[edit] Recent developments

In January 2007 President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva signed a new federal water and sanitation law (Lei 11.445/07 para o saneamento básico) that outlines federal policies in the sector. The law aims at increasing investments to provide universal access to water and sanitation, while taking into account local specificities and using appropriate technologies that are in line with users' ability to pay. It also aims at increasing transparency and "social control". The law is a compromise between diverging interests of a broad array of stakeholders. It thus leaves some important issues undefined. One of these issues is the responsibility for service provision in large metropolitan areas, where some municipalities have challenged the constitutionality of service provision by state companies. The Supreme Court is expected to rule soon on two such cases. Nevertheless, the law fills a void by providing a legal basis for the role of the federal government in water and sanitation that had remained undefined during the previous 20 years. [10]

In the same month, the President announced a new Program for the Acceleration of Growth (PAC) that includes major investments in highways, airports, ports, energy, as well as providing housing, water and sewage that would benefit poor Brazilians. The program calls for a total of 504 billion real (235 billion U.S. dollars) through 2010, of which about 205 billion U.S. dollars would be provided by state-owned companies and the private sector, while the rest would come from the federal government.[11]

[edit] Responsibility for water supply and sanitation

[edit] Policy and regulation

At the national level the Ministry of Cities coordinates sector policies, which are implemented by various Ministries. For example, the Ministry of Health has certain attributions related to sanitation, and the Ministries of Regional Development and of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform have attributions in rural areas. Water resources management is the responsibility of the national water agency ANA.[12]

Regulation of service provision is a responsibility of the municipalities. Nevertheless, 14 Brazilian states have established regulatory agencies for public services that cover, among other sectors, water supply and sanitation. Given that the legal mandate for regulation rests with the municipalities, however, the role of these regulatory agencies in water and sanitation is minimal.

The National Water Supply and Sanitation Policy, approved by the Congress of Cities, has identified six steps to improve service coverage and efficiency by encouraging a more competitive and better regulated environment: (1) the institutional separation of service providers and service regulators: (2) promotion of different decentralized alternatives for service provision; (3) promotion of social participation in service regulation and control; (4) use of low-cost technologies; (5) development of financially sustainable pricing schemes which include subsidies for low-income families where required to assure universal access to basic services; and (6) greater cooperation between federal and local authorities and civil society.

[edit] Service provision

According to the Brazilian constitution the provision of water and sanitation services is the responsibility of the country’s 5,560 municipalities (see List of major cities in Brazil). However, state water and sewer companies in each of Brazil’s 26 states (see States of Brazil) are in charge of water services in about 3,887 municipalities with a population of 103 million, corresponding to about 75% of Brazil's urban population with water connections. They are also in charge of sewer services in 893 municipalities with a population of 45 million, corresponding to about 55% of the population with access to sewerage. Most state water and sewer companies are mixed public-private companies with the majority of shares owned by the respective state government. Three state water companies - Sabesp in Sao Paulo, Copasa in Minas Gerais and Sanepar in Paraná - have floated shares in the Brazilian stock market and one of them - Sabesp - also at the New York Stock Exchange. One state company, Saneatins in Tocantins, is majority-owned by the private sector with the state government owning only a minority of shares. [13]

Some state companies operate under concession contracts with municipalities, while others operate under the authority of state governments. In some cases municipalities have challenged the legality of service provision by state companies that do not have concession contracts with municipalities.


See also: Water privatization in Brazil

All state service providers and most municipal service providers in Brazil are public. However, since 1996 65 municipalities in 10 states (Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Paraná, Espírito Santo, Mato Grosso and Pará among others) that serve 7 million customers signed concession contracts with private service providers either to provide only water services, only sewer services or both.[14] In 1996 private service providers have formed the Brazilian Association of Private Water and Sanitation Concessionnaire (ABCON).[15] A multi-stakheholder assessment of the success of these concessions is currently underway.

According to the World Bank's Private Participation in Infrastructure database, investment commitments by the private sector in Brazil's water and sanitation sector reached US$ 3 bn in 1994-2004 through 52 projects. 3 projects were divestitures, 39 were concessions and 10 were greenfield projects in wastewater treatment plants.[16]

Some public service providers, both at the state and the municipal level, perform very well, while other perform poorly. Likewise, some private concessions are quite successful, while others have not lived up to expectations and their obligations.

[edit] Utility associations

Municipal service providers are associated in the National Association of Municipal Water and Sanitation Service Providers ASSEMAE.[17] State water and sanitation companies have formed the Association of State Companies for Water Supply and Basic Sanitation AESBE [18]

[edit] Efficiency

Two common indicators of the operating efficiency of water and sanitation utilities are the level of non-revenue water (NRW) and labor productivity.

NRW in Brazil varies between 21% and a staggering 81%, reflecting huge differences in efficiency between service providers.[19] The average level of NRW in Brazil in 2006 was 39.8%[20], roughly the same for state and municipal public water companies. The level has remained unchanged since 2000. The average NRW for private utilities, however, was only 30% in 2000.[21]

Most public utilities in Brazil are heavily overstaffed. In 2000 the staff ratio was lowest for state utilities (3.7), much higher for municipal utilities (5.8) and - surprisingly - highest for privately operated utilities (6.4).[22] Average labor productivity has since then increased from 4.4 to 3.7 employees/1000 water connections.

[edit] Financial aspects

[edit] Tariffs

Tariff level. Water and sanitation tariffs in many Brazilian cities are relatively high compared to the Latin American average. According to the urban water and sanitation information system SNIS the average water tariff of utilities participating in the system (which provide water services to 95% of the urban population) was the equivalent of US$ 0.68/m3 and the average sanitation tariff was US$ 0.67/m3, for a total of US$$ 1.35/m3 for those connected to the sewer network. The ratio of sanitation to water tariffs of almost 1:1 is very high for Latin America and close to the ratio of the actual cost of the two services, while in most other Latin American countries sewer tariffs remain much lower than water tariffs.

Water and sewer tariffs vary substantially between cities. According to a 2005 study by the Latin American association of water and sanitation regulators ADERASA the typical monthly residential water bill for a consumption of 20 cubic meters per month was equivalent to US$17 in São Paulo, US$15 in Espírito Santo and US$ 10 in Pernambuco, compared to an average of US$11 among the 21 Latin American cities covered. [23]

Tariff structure and subsidies. In most parts of Brazil a low social tariff applies to the first block of consumption. In some cases a minimum consumption fee applies to all residential connections, and sometimes to commercial and institutional connections. Such subsidies benefit many who are not poor.[24] However, some State Water Companies have improved the targeting of their social tariffs by using the cadastres established for the Bolsa Familia Conditional Cash Transfer program. This is the case in Paraná(SANEPAR), Pernambuco(COMPESA) and Bahia(EMBASA). In these cases the social tariff is limited to about 10% of the company's customers.[25]

Other utilities have introduced direct cash payments to needy families to help them pay their water bills. For example, the city of Brasilia has introduced such a scheme. The Federal District pays the water utility an amount equivalent to the water and sewerage bills of poor families consuming less than 10 cubic meters per month. The State Water Company in Goiais has introduced a similar program. In each case, about 20,000 families benefit from the program. However, not many municipalities in Brazil have the institutional capacity to administer such a targeted subsidy scheme.[26]

Change in tariffs over time. Tariffs in most cities increased modertately in the 2002-2005 period net of inflation. According to the SNIS the average urban water tariff increased by 57% and the average sanitation tariff increased by 54% in nominal value prices, while inflation stood at 40%, thus resulting in a moderate increase in real prices.

Affordability. According to data collected by the Pan-American Health Organization based on multi-purpose household surveys, the share of water expenditures in household expenditures in urban areas was the second-highest among 10 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean in the late 1990s. The share was on average 2.3% and 3.4% for households in the poorest income decile.[27]

[edit] Revenue collection

Overall revenue collection losses for state utilities in Brazil were about 12% in 2000, but this masks large variations among utilities. State utilities with the highest collection losses are in the North and those in the Center-West and South have consistently good collection ratios. A number of municipal utilities appear to have serious collection problems.[28]

[edit] Investment

In 2005 total investment in water and sanitation by service providers participating in the national water and sanitation information system SNIS stood at 3.55 billion Brazilian Reals, including 1.53bn for water and 1.35bn for sanitation and 0.67bn for other investments.[29]

The recently announced Program for the Acceleration of Economic Growth is expected to contribute to further raise investment levels in water and sanitation.

It has been estimated that investments in water and sanitation infrastructure in the order of R$ 9.6 billion (US$ 4.5bn or $24 per capita or 0.7% of GDP) per year, or almost three times the level of 2005, would be needed to achieve universal access.

[edit] Financing

The great majority of investments in water and sanitation in Brazil are financed from domestic resources, with some complementary financing from international financial institutions.

In general, utilities with the greatest need to improve performance and expand services find it hardest to access funding, partially because they do not know how to access funding (including grant funding), partially because of weak institutional capacity, and partially because of their lack of creditworthiness.

Self-financing. By far the major source of funding in 2004 was self-financing by the utilities, accounting for 1.82bn Reals or 51% of all financing. [30] This is a remarkably high share by Latin American standards. However, it is less a reflection of financial strength of the utilities, but rather a symptom of a historically low level of investment in 2004.

State contributions funded by federal public banks and international finanical institutions. The federally owned Caixa Economica Federal and the Brazilian Development Bank BNDES both play important roles in financing water supply and sanitation investments in Brazil. They administer large public pension funds, such as the FGTS, which invest, among others, in water and sanitation. However, loans from the Caixa and BNDES are not made directly to utilities, but to the states, which in turn pass on funds to the utilities as a non-reimbursable contribution to their capital.

Loans to state governments from international financial institutions, such as the World Bank and the IDB, are also passed on to utilities as a non-reimbursable contribution to their capital.

The capital market. The financially most solid utilities also tap the capital market directly either through the Brazilian stock market or borrow from commercial Banks. The state water utility for Sao Paulo, Sabesp, is even listed on the New York Stock Exchange.

Output-based grants from the federal government. Since 2001 the federal government "buys" treated wastewater through an innovative program called PRODES, which allows utilities to access federal grants if they properly operate and maintain their wastewater treatment plants.

The National Health Foundation FUNASA. For small towns and rural areas a major source of funding is the National Health Foundation FUNASA under the Ministry of Health, which has invested 890 million Reales in 3,500 municipalities benefitting 11.43 million people between 1995 and 1999, mainly through its Programa Alvorada. [31]

Program for the Acceleration of Growth (PAC). In January 2007, the federal government announced a new Program for the Acceleration of Growth (PAC) that includes major investments in highways, airports, ports, energy, as well as providing housing, water and sewage that would benefit poor Brazilians. The program calls for a total of 504 billion real (235 billion U.S. dollars) through 2010, of which about 205 billion U.S. dollars would be provided by state-owned companies and the private sector, while the rest would come from the federal government.[32]

[edit] External cooperation

The most important external partners supporting the development of the Brazilian water and sanitation sector are the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the World Bank and the Japanese Bank for International Cooperation. Support is provided in terms of financing as well as analytical and advisory activities.

[edit] IDB

Approved on November 30, 2005, the US$140 million loan provides for sanitary infrastructure and institutional strengthening in the Educandos-Cuarenta basin.

Approved on November 26, 2003, the US$100 million loan aims to improve the sanitary and environmental conditions of the State of Ceará.

Approved on July 17, 2002, the US$47.6 million loan aims to improve water supply and sanitation in the city of Goiania.

Approved on October 17, 2001, the US$100 million loan provided for the construction of water and sewerage systems in communities for low-income communities of up to 75,000 inhabitants where HDI is below the national average.

Approved on December 6, 2000, the US$130 million loan aims to improve potable water and sewerage services, institutional efficiency, financial sustainability, private sector participation in management and investment financing for the Federal District of Brasília.

Approved on October 20, 1999, the US$200 million loan aims to improve the environmental quality of the Tiete River basin in the São Paulo Metropolitan Region.

[edit] World Bank

[edit] Loans

Loans provide not only infrastructure financing, but also policy advice and capacity building in order to improve the institutional framework for improved service delivery.

Dedicated water and sanitation loans

Approved on March 21, 2007, the US$28.78 million loan aims to promote better living conditions for the Uberaba Municipality through the integration of several components, including, flood protection (41%), sewerage (31%), and water supply 15%).

Approved on August 25, 2005, 70% of the US$159.04 loan aims at financing water, sanitation, and flood protection sector.

Approved on July 1, 2004, the US$62.3 loan is aimed at improving sewerage (75%) and water supply (15%) in the state of Espirito Santo.

Approval March 5, 1998, the US$300 million loan aims to improve the sewerage (53%) and water supply (36%) sectors.

Other loans with water and sanitation components

Approved on October 19, 2006, the US$40 million loan aims at financing basic social and economic infrastructure, including, water supply (15%).

Approved on December 6, 2005, the US$82.2 million loan aims at reducing urban poverty in a sustainable manner in the city of Salvador as well as other cities in the State of Bahia. The water, sanitation and flood protection sector receives 25% of the loan.

Approved on September 6, 2005, the US$46.8 million loan aims to assist the State of Minas Gerais to reduce high levels of poverty through several aspects, including, improvement of sewerage infrastructure (20%).

Approved July 12, 2005, the US$649 million loan aims to strengthen social inclusion in the State of Ceará through 24% of expenditures in water, sanitation, and flood protection.

Approved on December 7, 2004, the US$6.81 million loan aims to reduce urban and rural poverty through 25% expenditures in the water, sanitation, and flood protection sector.

Approved on July 1, 2004, the US$49.07 loan aims to assist the Betim Municipality in improving sewerage (40%).

Approved on April 24, 2003, the US$84 million loan seeks to enhance urbanization by improving water supply (30%) and solid waste management (30%).

[edit] Technical assistance, analysis and advice

Approved on January 6, 2000, the US$47 million technical assistance loan aims at improving the general water, sanitation, and flood protection sector (18%).

[edit] Japanese Bank for International Cooperation

Approved on August 6, 2004, the 21.32 billion Yen loan finances the improvement and expansion of the sewage system and the development of an environmental monitoring system and improved water quality.

[edit] References

  1. ^ Source: SNIS: Diagnóstico dos Serviços de Água e Esgotos – 2006, p. 118; Exchange rate of 12/31/2006: 1 US$ = 2.1385 Real
  2. ^ Personal communication from Marcus T. Abicalil, Senior Water and Sanitation Specialist, World Bank office, Brasilia
  3. ^ WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program [1]
  4. ^ WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program [2]
  5. ^ ibid
  6. ^ "Piora nivel de poluicao do Tiete" Estado de Sao Paulo Newspaper. 16 May 2007.
  7. ^ Ibid.
  8. ^ "Limpar of Tiete exige mais de R$3 bi." Estado de Sao Paulo. 17 May 2007.
  9. ^ a b c Marta T S Arretche: Water supply and sanitation, an undated article on the website of the Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs
  10. ^ Edson da Silva, Federação Nacional dos Urbanitários (FCU), 2006. FCU is a public-sector trade union
  11. ^ PAC
  12. ^ OMS 2000, Section 3 [3]
  13. ^ AESBE Financiamiento de Investimentos em Saneamento Básico 2006 p. 2
  14. ^ ABCON
  15. ^ ABCON
  16. ^ PPI database. Country Snapshot Brazil. Retrieved on 2008-02-13.
  17. ^ ASSEMAE
  18. ^ AESBE
  19. ^ SNIS Diagnostic 2005, p.102-107
  20. ^ Source: SNIS: Diagnóstico dos Serviços de Água e Esgotos – 2006, p. 107
  21. ^ Water, Poverty Reduction, and Sustainable Development in Brazil, World Bank 2003, p. 27
  22. ^ World Bank 2003, p. 25-26
  23. ^ ADERASA/PPIAF/World Bank: Las tarifas de agua potable y alcantarillado en America Latina, 2005, p. 55
  24. ^ World Bank 2003, p. 21
  25. ^ World Bank, Implementation Completion and Results Report, PROSANEAR-TAL, April 2008
  26. ^ World Bank 2003, p. 21 and World Bank, Implementation Completion and Results Report, PROSANEAR-TAL, April 2008
  27. ^ Rangel et al., Public Health 11(5/6), 2002 and especially Table on Household Expenditure
  28. ^ World Bank 2003, p. 27
  29. ^ SNIS Diagnostic 2005, p. 98
  30. ^ SNIS Diagnostic 2005, p. 100
  31. ^ FUNASA, Saneamiento at FUNASA
  32. ^ PAC

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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