Vulgar Latin vocabulary
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Vulgar Latin vocabulary is the vocabulary of Vulgar Latin, i.e. the everyday level of the Classical and Late Antique Latin language.
[edit] Historical overview
Like all languages, Latin possessed a numerous synonyms that were associated with different speech registers. Some of these words occur in the everyday language since Plautus, while others are borrowed into Latin from other languages, like Germanic, only late.
Certain words from Classical Latin were dropped from the vocabulary. Classical equus, "horse", was consistently replaced by caballus "nag" (but note Romanian iapă, Sardinian èbba, Spanish yegua, Catalan euga and Portuguese égua all meaning "mare" and deriving from Classical equa).
The vocabulary changes affected even the basic grammatical particles of Latin; there are many that vanish without a trace in Romance, such as an, at, autem, dōnec, enim, ergō, etiam, haud, igitur, ita, nam, postquam, quidem, quīn, quod, quoque, sed, utrum and vel.[1]
Verbs with prefixed prepositions frequently displaced simple forms. The number of words formed by such suffixes as -bilis, -ārius, -itāre and -icāre grew apace. These changes occurred frequently to avoid irregular forms or to regularise genders.
On the other hand, since Vulgar Latin and Latin proper were for much of their history different registers of the same language, rather than different languages, some Romance languages preserve Latin words that were lost in most others. For example, Italian ogni ("each/every") preserves Latin omnes. Other languages use cognates of tōtus for the same meaning; for example tutto in Italian, tudo/todo in Portuguese, todo in Spanish, tot in Catalan, tout in French and tot in Romanian.
Sometimes, a classical Latin word was kept alongside a Vulgar Latin word. In Vulgar Latin, classical caput, "head", yielded to testa (originally "pot") in some forms of western Romance, including French and Italian. But Italian, French and Catalan kept the Latin word under the form capo, chef, and cap which retained many metaphorical meanings of "head", including "boss". The Latin word with the original meaning is preserved in Romanian cap, together with ţeastă, both meaning 'head' in the anatomical sense. Southern Italian dialects likewise preserve capo as the normal word for "head". Spanish and Portuguese have cabeza/cabeça, derived from *capetia, a modified form of caput, while in Portuguese testa was retained as the word for "forehead".
Frequently, words borrowed directly from literary Latin at some later date, rather than evolved within Vulgar Latin, are found side by side with the evolved form. The (lack of) expected phonetic developments is a clue that one word has been borrowed. For example, Vulgar Latin fungus, "fungus, mushroom", which became Italian fungo, Catalan fong, and Portuguese fungo, became hongo in Spanish, showing the f > h shift that was common in early Spanish (cf. fīlius > Spanish hijo, "son", facere > Spanish hacer, "to do"). But Spanish also had fungo, which by its lack of the expected sound shift shows that it was borrowed directly from Latin.[1]
Vulgar Latin contained a large number of words of foreign origin not present in literary texts. Many works on medicine were written and distributed in Greek, and words were often borrowed from these sources. For example, gamba ( 'knee joint' ), originally a veterinary term only, replaced the classical Latin word for leg (crus) in most Romance languages. (cf. Fr. jambe, It. gamba). Cooking terms were also often borrowed from Greek sources, a calque based on a Greek term was ficatum (iecur) (goose's liver fattened with figs), with the participle ficatum becoming the common word for liver in Vulgar Latin (cf. Sp. higado, Fr. foie, It. fegato, Romanian ficat). Important religious terms were also drawn from religious texts written in Greek, such as episcopus (bishop), presbyter (priest), martyr etc. Words borrowed from Gaulish include caballus (horse) and carrus (chariot).
[edit] Selected list of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin words
| English meaning | Latin form | Ancient instances | Modern Romance forms |
|---|---|---|---|
| "all" | omnis | Italian ogni | |
| tōtus | French tout, Italian tutto, Spanish/Portuguese todo, Romanian tot | ||
| "altar" | āra | - | |
| altāria | French autel, Italian altare, Portuguese/Spanish altar | ||
| "ask" | rogāre | Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan rogar, Romanian ruga | |
| interrogāre | Old French enterver, Romanian întreba (French interroger, Italian interrogare, Spanish/Portuguese interrogar are learned forms) | ||
| quaerere | Italian chiedere, Romanian cere (French quérir "fetch", Spanish/Portuguese querer "want") | ||
| dēmandāre | French demander, Italian domandare, Spanish/Portuguese demandar, Catalan demanar, Aromanian dimânda | ||
| "back" | tergum | - | |
| dorsum | - | French/Catalan/Portuguese doc, Italian dosso, Romanian dos in Classical Latin normally "the horizontal back of an animal" | |
| "beak" | rōstrum | Spanish rostro, Portuguese rosto, "face", Romanian rost "meaning" | |
| *beccus (Gaulish) | Reichenau glosses | French bec, Italian becco, Catalan bec, Spanish pico, Portuguese bico | |
| "beautiful" | pulcher | - | |
| fōrmōsus | Spanish hermoso, Portuguese formoso, Romanian frumos | ||
| bellus | French beau, Italian bello | ||
| "begin" | conārī | - | |
| *cominitiāre | French commencer, Italian cominciare, Spanish comenzar, from initiāre "initiate" | ||
| "big" | magnus | - | |
| grandis | French grand, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese grande, Catalan gran | ||
| "bird" | avis | Spanish/Portuguese ave | |
| *avicellus (diminutive) | French oiseau, Italian ucello, Portuguese auzel, Catalan aucel | ||
| passer | Spanish pájaro, Portuguese pássaro, Romanian pasăre, orignally "sparrow" (so Italian passero) | ||
| "blow" | flāre | - | |
| sufflāre' | French souffler, Italian soffiare, Romanian sufla, Spanish soplar, from flāre with prefix sub | ||
| "boy" | puer | - | |
| *ninnus (hypocoristic) | Italian mimmo, Spanish niño | ||
| *wurkiō (Germanic) | French garçon, hence Italian garzone, Spanish garzón, Portuguese garçao | ||
| *racātius? (obscure, perhaps Arabic[2]) | Italian ragazzo | ||
| "breathe" | spīrāre | - | |
| respīrāre | French respirer, Italian respirare, Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan respirar, Romanian respira, frequentative form of spirāre | ||
| "brown" | furvus | - | |
| *brūnus (Germanic) | Reichenau glosses | French brun, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese bruno | |
| "buy" | emere | - | |
| comparāre | Italian comp(e)rare, Spanish/Portuguese comprar, Romanian cumpăra | ||
| *accaptāre | French acheter, Italian accattare ("beg", older "buy") | ||
| "cat" | fēlēs | - | |
| *cattus | French chat, Italian gatto, Spanish/Portuguese gato | ||
| "cauldron" | lebēs | - | |
| *calidāria | Reichenau glosses | French chaudière, Italian calderone, Romanian căldare, Spanish caldera, from calidus, "warm" | |
| "change" | mūtāre | Italian mutare, Spanish/Portuguese mudar, Romanian muta | |
| *cambiāre (Gaulish[3]) | French changer, Italian cambiare, Spanish cambiar, Romanian schimba, not in classical Latin, probably originally "to exchange" | ||
| "cheese", | caseus | Italian cacio, Spanish queso, Romanian caş, also borrowed into Germanic: English cheese, German Käse | |
| fōrmāticum | Reichenau glosses | French fromage, hence Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, post-classical, from fōrmāre, "to form" | |
| "child" | līberī | - | |
| īnfāns | French enfant, Italian fante "infantryman", Spanish/Portuguese infante, "prince" | ||
| "city" | urbs | - | |
| oppidum | - | ||
| cīvitās | French cité, Italian città, Spanish ciudad, Portuguese cidade, Romanian cetate | ||
| "count" | numerāre | French nombrer, Italian noverare, Romanian număra | |
| computāre | French compter, Italian contare, Spanish/Portuguese contar | ||
| "country" | regiō | Old French royon, Italian rione "neighbourhood" (French région, Italian regione Spanish región are learned forms) | |
| pāgus | - | ||
| pāgēnsis | Gregory of Tours | Italian paese, French pays, hence Spanish/Portuguese país, Catalan pahis | |
| "day" | diēs | Italian dì, Spanish/Portuguese dia, Romanian zi | |
| diurnum | French jour, Italian giorno, Catalan jorn | ||
| "destroy" | dēlēre | - | |
| dēstruere | French détruire, Italian distruggere, Spanish destruir | ||
| "door" | forēs | - | |
| iānua | Logudorese yanna, Northern Calabrian yanuwẹ (Portuguese janella "window") | ||
| porta | - | French porte, Italian/Portuguese/Catalan porta, Spanish puerta, Romanian poartă, originally "gate" | |
| "ear" | auris | - | |
| auricula (diminutive) | French oreille, Italian orecchio, Spanish oreja, Portuguese orelha, Catalan orella, Romanian ureche | ||
| "eat" | edere | - | |
| com-edere | Spanish/Portuguese comer | ||
| mandūcāre | French manger, Italian manducare, Romanian mânca (Italian mangiare and Portuguese manjar are from the French) | ||
| "enemy" | hostis | Spanish hueste, Portuguese hoste, Romanian oaste, "army" | |
| inimīcus | French ennemi, Italian nemico, Spanish enemigo, Portuguese inimigo; in Classical Latin, inimīcus is "a personal enemy" | ||
| "evening" | vesper | French vêpre, Italian vespero, Spanish vísperas, Portuguese vesperas, normally in an ecclesiastical meaning | |
| sēra | French soir, Italian sera, Romanian seară | ||
| "fat" | pinguis | - | |
| crassus > *grassus | Reichenau glosses | French/Romanian gras, Italian grasso, Spanish graso, Portuguese graxo, with g- from grossus | |
| grossus | French/Romanian gros, Italian/Portuguese grosso, Spanish grueso | ||
| "feather" | penna | Romanian pană | |
| plūma | French plume, Italian piuma, Spanish/Portuguese pluma, Catalan ploma | ||
| ""field" | ager | Romanian agru | |
| campus | Reichenau glosses | French champ, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese campo, Romanian câmp | |
| "fight" | pugna | - | |
| *lūcta | French lutte, Italian lotta, Spanish lucha, Romanian luptă, originally "wrestling match", post-classical, classical equivalents were lūctāmen and lūctātiō, all from lūctārī, "to fight" | ||
| "find" | invenīre | - | |
| *incontrāre | Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese encontrar, originally "meet" (French encontrer, Italian incontrare) | ||
| turbāre | French trouver, hence Italian trovare, originally "disturb" > "track down" (Spanish turbar, Portuguese torvar "impede") | ||
| "fight" | pugnāre | - | |
| luctārī | Italian lottare, Spanish luchar, Portuguese lutar, Romanian lupta | ||
| "fingernail" | unguis | - | |
| ungula (diminutive) | Reichenau glosses | French ongle, Italian unghia, Spanish uña, Portuguese unha, Catalan ungla , Romanian unghie | |
| "fire" | ignis | - | |
| focus | French feu, Italian fuoco, Spanish fuego, Portuguese fogo, Romanian/Catalan foc | ||
| "food" | cibus | Italian dial. cevo and similar forms (Italian cibo is a learned form) | |
| alimenta | French alimentation, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese alimento, Catalan aliment | ||
| "force" | vīs | - | |
| *fortia | Reichenau glosses | French force, Italian forza, Spanish fuerza, Portuguese força, from fortis, "strong" | |
| "from" | ab | - | |
| dē | French/Spanish/Portuguese/Romanian de, Italian da | ||
| "garden" | hortus | Italian orto, Spanish huerto, Portuguese ort | |
| *gardīnus (Germanic) | French jardin, hence Italian giardino, Spanish jardín, Portuguese jardim | ||
| "girl" | puella | - | |
| fīlia | French fille, also and originally "daughter" (the normal meaning in the other Romance languages) | ||
| *ninna (hypocoristic) | Spanish niña, Ctalan noy(a) | ||
| *racātia? | Italian ragazza, from ragazzo (see "boy") | ||
| "head" | caput | French chef, Spanish/Portuguese cabo, Catalan/Romanian cap; in and Italian capo; outside of Romanian, the word has taken a metaphorical meaning, "leader" and the like | |
| *capetia | Spanish cabeza, Portuguese cabeça | ||
| testa | French tête, Italian testa, Spanish/Portuguese testa "forehead", Romanian ţeastă "skull", originally "pot" | ||
| "helmet" | galea | - | |
| *helmus (Germanic) | Reichenau glosses | French heaume, Italian/Portuguese elmo, Catalan elm, Spanish yelmo | |
| "help" | iuvāre | - | |
| adiūtāre | French aider, Italian aiutare, Spanish ayudar, Portuguese/Catalan ajudar, Romanian ajuta, frequentative of iuvāre with prefix ad | ||
| "horse" | equus | Spanish yegua, Portuguese egoa, Romanian iapă, "mare" | |
| caballus | French cheval, Italian/Portuguese cavallo, Spanish caballo, Romanian cal | ||
| "house" | domus | Italian duomo "cathedral" | |
| casa | French chez, "at the house of > at", Italian/Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan casa, Romanian casă; in Classical Latin, casa is "a humble dwelling" | ||
| mānsiō | French maison, in Classical Latin "a halt on a journey" | ||
| "huge" | ingēns | - | |
| ēnormis | French énorme, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese enorme | ||
| "hunt" | vēnārī | French vener, Catalan venar, Romanian vâna | |
| *captiāre | French chasser, Italian cacciare, Spanish cazar, Portuguese caçar; post-classical, frequentative of capere, "to catch" | ||
| "kill" | necāre | French noyer, Italian annegare, Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese anegar, Romanian îneca "drown" | |
| interficere | - | ||
| occīdere | Reichenau glosses | Old French ocire, Italian uccidere, Romanian ucide | |
| tūtārī | French tuer, originally "protect oneself" | ||
| "kiss" | ōsculārī | - | |
| bāsiāre | Catullus, Petronius | French baiser, Italian baciare, Spanish/Catalan besar, Portuguese beijar, Aromanian baş | |
| "kitchen" | culīna | - | |
| coquīna | Apuleius | French cuisine, Italian cucina, Spanish cocina | |
| "know" | scīre | Romanian şti | |
| sapere | French savoir, Italian sapere, Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan saber | ||
| "leg" | crūs | - | |
| *camba (Greek) | Vegetius (4th cent.) | French jambe, Italian gamba, Catalan/Portuguese camba | |
| "male" | mās | - | |
| māsculus (diminutive) | Reichenau glosses | French mâle, Italian maschio, Portuguese (> Spanish) macho, Dialectal Romanian mascur | |
| "man" | vir | - | |
| homō | French homme, Italian uomo, Spanish hombre, Portuguese homem, Catalan ome, Romanian om, in Classical Latin "a human being" (in opposition to gods and beasts) | ||
| "market" | forum | Old French fuer "law", Spanish fuero "id.",, Portuguese foro "court" | |
| mercatum | Reichenau glosses | French marché, Italian mercato, Spanish mercado | |
| "mob" | turba | - | |
| *fulcus | Reichenau glosses | French foule, Italian folla; but cf. Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan turba | |
| "money" | pecūnia | - | |
| dēnārius | Italian denaro, Spanish dinero, Portuguese dinheiro, Catalan diner, originally a Roman coin | ||
| argentum | French argent, both "money" and "silver" (both meanings in Classical Latin) | ||
| "mouth" | ōs | - | |
| bucca | French bouche, Italian bocca, Romanian bucă, Portuguese/Spanish/Catalan boca, originally "cheek" | ||
| "narrow" | angustus | Spanish angosto, Romanian îngust | |
| strictus | French étroit, Italian stretto, Spanish estrecho | ||
| "never" | numquam | Old French nonques, Spanish/Portuguese nunca | |
| iam magis | French/Portuguese jamais, Italian giammai, Spanish jamás, originally "ever" | ||
| "obey" | pārēre | - | |
| oboedīre | French obéir, Italian obbedire, Spanish obedecer | ||
| "old" | vetus | Old French viez, Italian vieto | |
| vetulus | French vieux, Italian vecchio, Spanish viejo, Catalan vell, Portuguese velho, Romanian vechi, diminutive of vetus | ||
| "papyrus > paper" | charta | Italian carta, Romanian carte | |
| papȳrus | French papier, Spanish/Portuguese papel, Catalan paper, | ||
| "pay" | (ex)pendere | - | |
| dispendere | Italian spendere (Spanish despender, Catalan despendre "use") | ||
| pācāre | French payer, Italian pagare, Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese pagar, originally "bring under control" | ||
| "play" | lūdere | - | |
| iocārī | French jouer, Italian giocare, Spanish jugar, Portuguese jogar, Romanian juca, | ||
| "play" | lūdus | - | |
| iocus | French jeu, Italian giuoco, Spanish juego, Portuguese jogo, Romanian joc | ||
| "quail" | coturnīx | Spanish/Portuguese codorniz, Catalan codorniu | |
| *coācula | Reichenau glosses | French caille, Italian quaglia | |
| "quick" | celer | - | |
| rapidus | French rapide, Italian rapido, Spanish rápido, all of them learned forms that have replaced the regular outcomes Old French rade, Italian ratto, Spanish raudo | ||
| "recognise" | agnōscere | - | |
| recognōscere | French reconnaître, Italian riconoscere, Spanish reconocer | ||
| "right a." (opp. "left") | dexter | Italian/Portuguese destro, Spanish diestro, Catalan destre | |
| dirēctus | French droit, Italian diritto, Spanish derecho, Portuguese direito, Romanian drept | ||
| "right n." | iūs | - | |
| dirēctus | French droit, Italian diritto, Spanish derecho, Portuguese direito, Romanian drept | ||
| "river" | flūmen | Italian fiume | |
| fluvius | French fleuve | ||
| rīvus | Old French ri(f), Old Italian rigo, Spanish río Portuguese rio, Catalan riu, Romanian rîu | ||
| "rock" | saxum | - | |
| *rocca (perhaps Germanic[4]) | French roche, Italian roccia, Spanish rocca, post-classical | ||
| "rope" | fūnis | - | |
| chorda | French corde, Italian/Portuguese/Catalan corda, Spanish cuerda | ||
| "sand" | arena | Italian rena, Spanish arena, Portuguese areia, Dialectal Romanian arină | |
| sabulo | French sable, Italian sabbia | ||
| "shirt" | tunica | Italian tonaca, Spanish tonga "coat" | |
| camisia (Gaulish?) | Jerome | Vegliot kamaisa, Romanian cămaşă; with learned -i- (from the ecclesiastical language): French chemise, Italian camicia, Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese camisa | |
| "short" | brevis | French bref, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese breve | |
| curtus | French court, Italian/Spanish corto, Romanian scurt | ||
| "show" | ostendere | - | |
| mōnstrāre | French montrer (with Latin n for earlier mostrer), Italian mostrare, Spanish/Portuguese mostrar | ||
| "sick" | aeger | - | |
| infirmus | Italian infermo, Spanish/Portuguese enfermo | ||
| male habitus | Nepos, Aulus Gellius | French malade, Italian malato, Catalan malalt, originally "in a bad condition" | |
| "sing" | canere | - | |
| cantāre (frequentative) | French chanter, Italian cantare, Portuguese/Galician/Spanish/Catalan cantar, Romanian cânta | ||
| "skin" | cutis | - | |
| pellis | French peau, Italian pelle, Spanish piel, Portuguese pele, Catalan pell, Romanian piele; in Classical Latin normally "a hide" | ||
| "speak" | loquī | - | |
| fābulārī | Spanish hablar, Portuguese falar | ||
| *parabolāre | French parler, Italian parlare, hence Spanish parlar, Portuguese palrar | ||
| "spear" | hasta | - | |
| lancea | French lance, Italian lancia, Spanish lanza, Portuguese lança, Catalan llança | ||
| "spring" | vēr | Romanian vară, "summer" | |
| prīma vēra | Italian/Spanish/Portuguese/Catalan primavera, Romanian primăvară, literally "first springs" | ||
| prīmum tempus | French printemps, literally "first time" | ||
| "stone" | lapis | - | |
| petra | French pierre, Italian pietra, Spanish piedra, Portuguese/Catalan pedra, Romanian piatră | ||
| "stonemason" | cēmentarius | - | |
| matiō | Reichenau glosses | French maçon, Spanish masón | |
| "sword" | gladium' | French glai "iris", Old Italian ghiado | |
| spatha (Greek) | French épée, Italian spada, Spanish/Portuguese espada, Catalan espasa, Romanian spadă | ||
| "take" | capere | Old French chavoir, Italian capire "understand", Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese caber "contain" | |
| prehendere | French prendre, Italian prendere, Spanish/Portuguese prender, Catalan pendre, Romanian prinde | ||
| "teach" | docēre | Old French duire | |
| *insignāre | French enseigner, Italian insegnare, Spanish enseñar, Portuguese ensinar, probably originally "to engrave", from signāre, "to engrave", with prefix in | ||
| "thigh" | femur | - | |
| coxa | Reichenau glosses | Portuguese, Galician and Old Spanish coxa, French cuisse, Italian coscia, Catalan cuixa, Romanian coapsă, originally "hip", first attested in Silver Latin | |
| "thing" | rēs | French (ne) ... rien "nothing" | |
| causa | Reichenau glosses | French chose, Italian/Spanish/Catalan cosa, Portuguese ciosa, originally "cause" | |
| "think" | cōgitāre | Romanian cugeta | |
| pensāre | French penser, Italian pensare, Spanish/Portuguese pensar | ||
| "throw" | iacere | - | |
| iactāre | French jeter, Italian gettare, Spanish echar, Portuguese geitar; originally a frequentative | ||
| "tomorrow" | crās | - | |
| māne | French demain, Italian domani, Spanish mañana, Portuguese amanhã, Romanian mâine, originally "in the morning" | ||
| "touch" | tangere | Spanish taňer "play an instrument" | |
| *toccāre (imitative) | French toucher, Italian toccare, Spanish/Portuguese tocar, probably originally "to knock, strike" | ||
| "understand" | intelligere | Romanian înţelege | |
| comprehendere | French/Catalan comprendre, Italian comprendere, Spanish/Portuguese comprender (Romanian cuprinde "comprise") | ||
| capere | Italian capire "understand" (Old French chavoir, Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese caber "contain") | ||
| "war" | bellum | - | |
| *werra (Germanic) | French guerre, Italian/Spanish/Portuguese guerra | ||
| "white" | albus | Romanian alb | |
| *blancus (Germanic) | French/Catalan blanc, Italian bianco, Spanish blanco, Portuguese branco | ||
| "why" | cūr | - | |
| prō quō | French pourquoi, Italian perché, Spanish por qué | ||
| "wide" | lātus | Romanian lat | |
| largus | French large, Italian/Portuguese largo, Romanian larg, originally "abundant" | ||
| "weep" | lamentāre | - | |
| plōrāre | Reichenau glosses | French pleurer, Spanish llorar, Portuguese chorar, Catalan plorar | |
| "winter" | hiems | - | |
| hibernus | Reichenau glosses | French hiver, Italian inverno, Spanish invierno, Portuguese inverno, Catalan invern, Romanian iarnă, adjective of hiems | |
| "woman" | fēmina | French femme, Italian femmina, Spanish hembra, Portuguese fêmea | |
| mulier | Italian moglie, Spanish mujer, Portuguese mulher, Romanian muiere | ||
| domina | French dame, Italian donna, Romanian doamnă originally "female head of a houshold, mistress" | ||
| "word" | verbum | - | |
| parabola | French parole, Italian parola, Spanish/Portuguese palabra, in Silver Latin "a comparison" | ||
| "work" | labōrāre | Italian lavorare, Spanish labrar, Catalan llaurar, Portuguese lavrar, "to plough" or "to cultivate" | |
| *tripāliāre | French travailler, Spanish trabajar, Portuguese trabalhar, from trēs, "three" + pālus, "stake"; | ||
| "yellow" | flāvus | - | |
| galbinus | Petronius, Martial | French jaune, Italian giallo, Romanian galben, originally "greenish-yellow" | |
| "yes" | ita | - | |
| sīc | Reichenau glosses | Italian sì, Spanish sí, Portuguese sim | |
| hoc | French oui |
[edit] Notes
- ^ a b Harrington et al. (1997).
- ^ Arabic raqqāṣ "messenger", cf. Dizionario Etimologico della Lingua Italiana, ed. Cortelazzo & Zolli, 1999, p. 1311
- ^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=change&searchmode=none. Retrieved on 2008-05-22.
- ^ G. Rohlfs, Revue de linguistique Romane 28 (1964) 95-102
