Mountain warfare
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Mountain warfare refers to warfare in the mountains. This type of warfare is also called Alpine warfare, named after the Alps mountains. Mountain warfare is one of the most dangerous, as it involves fighting not only the enemy but also the extreme cold and inaccessible heights. The problems multiply due to avalanches of snow or rocks, either natural or induced by the enemy.
The long nights and great distances on huge, snow-covered peaks at sub-zero degree temperatures demands much endurance and patience. Winning the warfare essentially boils down to holding the high ground in the battle. Attacking an enemy position entrenched in a mountain warfare scenario requires a greater ratio of attacking soldiers to defending soldiers, than would be needed on the plains.[1] Mountains, at any time of year, are dangerous – lightning, high wind, rock fall, extreme cold, or falls into crevasses and cliffs all being able to cause death. In war, the dangers multiply exponentially. Movement, medical evacuation and reinforcements up steep slopes, often where even mules cannot go, involves an enormous exertion of energy.
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[edit] History
[edit] Early history
The earliest example of mountain warfare was Carthiginian general Hannibal's famous march across the Alps mountains during the Second Punic War, where he fought battles against the Roman armies.
The term mountain warfare is said to have came about in the Middle Ages, after the monarchies of Europe found it difficult to fight the Swiss armies in the Alps. This was because the Swiss were able to fight in smaller units and took vantage points against a huge unmaneuverable army. Similar styles of attack and defence were later employed by guerrillas, partisans and freedom fighters who hid in the mountains after an attack, making it challenging for the army to fight back.
[edit] World War I
Mountain warfare came to the fore once again, during World War I, when some of the nations involved in the war had mountain divisions that had hitherto not been tested. The Austro-Hungarian defence repelled the Italians as they took advantage of the mostly mountainous terrain, where more people succumbed to frostbite and avalanches than to bullets.During the summer of 1918 on the Italian front took place the Battle of San Matteo that was the highest battle of the entire war.In December of 1914, another offensive was launched by the Turkish supreme commander Enver Pasha with 95,000-190,000 troops against the Russians in the Caucasus. Insisting on a frontal attack against Russian positions in the mountains in the heart of winter, the end result was devastating and Enver lost 86% of his force.
[edit] Kashmir conflict
- Further information: Kashmir conflict
The most dangerous and volatile of all mountain conflicts involves the ongoing one between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region. Since the partition in 1947, both countries have been constantly locked in skirmishes and wars mainly revolving around this mountainous region. The first hostilities between the two nations in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 showed that both were ill-equipped to fight in biting cold, let alone on the highest mountain region in the world, the Himalayas.
During the Sino-Indian War of 1962, hostilities broke out between the Republic of India and People's Republic of China at some of the highest altitudes over the Himalayan mountains.
Later wars between India and Pakistan were mainly fought on the valleys than in the mountains, although several major actions did take place in all these conflicts. This changed in the Kargil War when Indian forces were faced with the huge task of flushing out the infiltrators. This proxy warfare became the only modern war that was fought exclusively on the mountains. Since Pakistan-backed forces held the high ground and battles took place in peaks as high as 7,000 metres, it proved an immensely difficult task for the Indian Army, supported by massed artillery and the Indian Air Force, to vacate the area from Pakistan troops.As a result of its experiences in Mountain Warfare in Kargil, the Indian Army has now introduced courses about Artillery Firing in the Mountains, where traditional characteristics of ballistic projectiles do not work as effectively. On a related note, the Siachen Glacier was named the highest battleground in the world with both the countries holding their respective positions at nearly 7000 m above sea level. More than 4000 people have died in this inhospitable terrain, mostly due to weather extremes and the natural hazards of mountain warfare.
[edit] Mountain warfare training
The expense of training Mountain Troops precludes them from being on the ORBAT of most armies except those who reasonably expect to fight in such terrain. Mountain Warfare training is one of the most difficult and ardous there is and in many countries is the exclusive purview of special forces, elite units or commandos who are as part of their remit supposed to be able to fight in difficult terrain, (for example the Royal Marines in UK) though regular units may occasionally undertake training of this nature.
This is however not the case with other armies.
[edit] Austria and Germany
Gebirgsjäger is the German word for mountain infantry (Gebirge meaning "mountain range", and Jäger meaning "hunter" or "ranger"). The word Jäger is the traditional German term for light infantry.
The mountain infantry of Austria have their roots in the three "Landesschützen" regiments of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The mountain infantry of Germany carry on certain traditions of the Alpenkorps (Alpine corps) of World War I. Both countries' mountain infantry share the Edelweiss insignia. It was established in 1907 as a symbol of the Austro-Hungarian Landesschützen regiments by Emperor Franz Joseph I. These troops wore their edelweiss on the collar of their uniforms. When the Alpenkorps came to aid the Landeschützen in defending the Austro-Hungary's southern frontier against the Italian attack in May 1915, the grateful Landeschützen honoured the men of the Alpenkorps by awarding them their own insignia: the Edelweiss.
Today the traditions of the Austrian mountain infantry (Gebirgsjäger) are maintained by the 6th Jägerbrigade in Innsbruck, subdivided in three battalions (Jägerbataillon 23, Jägerbataillon 24 and Jägerbataillon 26)
Honouring tradition, upon the creation of the Bundeswehr in 1956, the mountain infantry returned as a distinctive arm of the German army. Until 2001, they were organized as the 1. Gebirgsdivision, but this division was disbanded in a general reform. The successor unit is Gebirgsjägerbrigade 23 which has its headquarters in Bad Reichenhall (Bavaria). Battalions of these mountain infantry are deployed in southern Bavaria.
The soldiers of the mountain infantry wear a grey cap (“Bergmütze”) with an edelweiss on its left side. This distinguishes them from all other German army soldiers who wear berets. The formal uniform, which is based on traditional skiing outfits, is also different from the standard German military uniform, and consists of ski jacket, stretch trousers and ski boots.
The “Kaiserjägermarsch” (March of the Kaiserjäger) from 1914 is the traditional military march of the German and Austrian mountain infantry.
[edit] France
Until 1859, Italy wasn't yet a unified state but a sum of kingdoms and independent republics (Kingdom of Naples, Republic of Venice, Papal States, etc.). The situation changed since 1859 with the help of Garibaldi and Cavour trying to create a unified and solid nation. This geopolitical change was seen as a possible threat from the other side of the Alps border, partially as the Italians were the first to have mountain warfare specialized troops. The French solution was to create its own mountain corps in order to oppose an Italian invasion through the Alps. By December 24, 1888, a law is applied about the creation of a troupes de montagne ("mountain troops") corps. 12 out of the 31 existing Chasseurs à Pied ("Hunters on Foot") battalions are selected to be converted. These first units are named Bataillons Alpins de Chasseurs à Pied ("Hunters on Foot Alpine Battalions") which will be later shortened to Bataillons de Chasseurs Alpins ("Alpine Hunters Battalions").
Since 1999 they have been (with other units) part of the 27th Mountain Infantry Brigade (Brigade d'Infanterie de Montagne), and are currently organised into three battalions:
7th Battalion, Bourg-Saint-Maurice 13th Battalion, Chambéry 27th Battalion, Cran-Gevrier (Annecy) All three battalions are based in cities in the French Alps, thus the name of the units.
The Chasseurs are easily recognised by their wide beret (when not in battle uniform), named tarte (= pie). The British Army adopted the wearing of the beret in the 1920s after having seen similar berets worn by the 70th Chasseurs Alpins (now disbanded).
[edit] India
India has a high-altitude commando school at Tawang, also known as Parvat Ghatak (Mountain Killer) School in Arunachal Pradesh present in North-Eastern part of India boardering China. The High-Altitude Commando School is the highest of its kind in India at 15,000 feet With the mercury dipping to minus 20 degrees providing a freezing tougher terrain to impart training like siachen.[1].
[edit] Italy
The Alpini, meaning "the Alpines", are the elite mountain warfare soldiers of the Italian Army. They are currently organised in two main operational brigades, which are subordinated to the Alpini Corps Command. The singular is an Alpino (an "Alpine").
On June 7, 1883, the Alpini were awarded the "fiamme verdi" (green flames) collar patch. Also adopted was their distinctive headdress; the "Cappello Alpino" with its black feather, which led to them being nicknamed "Le Penne Nere" or "black feathers".
Originally formed in 1872, their mission was to protect Italy's northern mountainous borders. In 1888 the Alpini were sent to their first mission abroad, in Africa, during the First Italo–Ethiopian War. They distinguished themselves during World War I when they fought against Austro-Hungarian soldiers in what has since been called the "War in snow and ice". During World War II, the Alpini fought together with Axis forces mostly on the Eastern Front being tasked to hold the front in the Don river plains.
In the 1990s, after the end of the Cold War, three of the five Alpini brigades and many support units were disbanded due to the reorganization process of the Italian Army. Currently, despite having some of the best trained and best equipped mountain troops in the world, the military role of Alpines is seen in terms of peacekeeping missions and minor disputes interventions.
The 4th Alpini Regiment was a light Infantry regiment of the Italian Army, specializing in Mountain Combat. The Alpini are a mountain infantry corps of the Italian Army, that distinguished itself in combat during World War I (WWI) and World War II (WWII). Today the 4th Alpini Regiment is a Special Forces unit of elite mountain infantry specialized in the airborne assault role.
[edit] Romania
The Vânători de Munte (IPA: [vɨ.nə'torʲ de 'mun.te], English translation: Mountain Hunters) are the elite mountain troops of the Romanian Land Forces. They were first established as an independent Army Corps in 1916 during World War I, and became operational in 1917 under Corpul de Munte designation.
Thought as of being elite troops, the Romanian Vânători de Munte saw action in World War II on the Eastern Front in some of the harshest battles - including the battles of Sevastopol and Stalingrad - where their performance lived up to their reputation: virtually all their commanders from brigade level and up received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. There are currently two brigades operational, one subordinated to the 1st Territorial Army Corps (the 2nd Mountain Troops Brigade), and another one subordinated to the 4th Territorial Army Corps (61st Mountain Troops Brigade). Often, mountain troops units are participating in peacekeeping missions in Iraq and Afghanistan.
[edit] Pakistan
In the Pakistan Army, mountain training is considered part of overall training and all soldiers and units are expected to be proficient in it, and almost all units of all arms serve tours in Kashmir and Northern Areas, often in active duties on the LOC or Siachin. The Pakistan Army’s High-Altitude School, at Rattu in Northern Kashmir, is an ideal location on the confluence of the Hindukush, Himalayas, and Karakorum ranges. The school conducts training throughout the year and includes mountain climbing on peaks ranging from 15,000 to 20,000 feet and survival on glaciated terrain and in snowy and icy conditions.[2]
[edit] Poland
Podhale rifles (Polish: Strzelcy podhalańscy) is a traditional name of the mountain infantry units of the Polish Army. Formed in 1918 out of volunteers of the region of Podhale, in 1919 the smaller detachments of Podhale rifles were pressed into two mountain infantry divisions, the 21st Mountain Infantry and 22nd Mountain Infantry Divisions, as well as into three brigades of mountain infantry. Considered an elite of the Polish Army, the units were roughly equivalent to the German Gebirgsjäger troops.
[edit] Former Soviet Union
The USSR maintained several thousand of mountain troops and used them to good effect in the Caucasus and in Afghanistan.
[edit] Spain
Spain have a Brigade of Muontain tropp:
Brigada de Cazadores de Montaña "Aragón" I (1st Mountain Brigade)Regimiento de Cazadores de Montaña "Galicia" 64 (64th Mountain Regiment)Regimiento de Cazadores de Montaña "America" 66 (66th Mountain Regiment)Grupo de Artillería de Montaña I (1st Mountain Artillery Battalion) Grupo Logístico de Montaña I (1st Mountain Logistic Battalion) Batallón de Cuartel General I (1st Headquarters Battalion) Unidad de Zapadores de Montaña 1 (1st Mountain Sapper Company)
[edit] Switzerland
Switzerland have in service three Brigades of mountain troops.[clarify]
[edit] United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom the Royal Marines are the principal regular unit trained in mountain and cold weather warfare and have a specialised instructor cadre: the Mountain Leader Training Cadre. The capability is fielded by 3 Commando Brigade. The British Army also have the Mountain Troops of Special Air Service squadrons.
[edit] United States
The US has a distinguished history in mountain warfare, the 10th Mountain Division served in the Alps in WWII. The modern US military has several shortcomings in this area. Pakistani and Indian veterens of Kashmir who have attended the US Mountain Warfare School in Vermont and the USMC School in Bridgeport, California have noted that while the US Military has excellent mountaineers, their Mountain Warfare skills were somewhat lacking, [3]. This was not helped by somewhat erroneous doctrines, which held that artillery pieces (pack howitzer type) were obsolete, or could be replaced by ATGM and mortars and did not give enough emphasis coordination between artillery, infantry and air. The U.S. Army does not conduct collective training in mountain warfare; it focuses more on survival training rather than high-altitude combat. The USMC conducts infantry battalion training, but the training does not include artillery, engineers, aviation, or other supporting arms. [4]. These deficits were seen most glaringly during Operation Anaconda. The US has begun steps to rectify the situation.
[edit] Other countries
At present the following armies have specialised alpine units or Mountain troops:
- Argentina Cazadores de Montaña , 8th Mountain Infantry Brigade , 6th Mountain Infantry Brigade
- Chile Infantería de Montaña
- India Eight Mountain Divisions and Two Mountain Strike Divisions
- Poland Podhale Rifles
- Romania Vânători de Munte
- Spain Cazadores de Montaña
- Switzerland Gebirgsinfanterie, Gebirgsinfanteriebrigade 9 , Gebirgsinfanteriebrigade 10 , Gebirgsinfanteriebrigade 12
Also Armenia , Bulgaria , Greece, Israel, Nagorno-Karabakh, Russia and Turkey are among the nations that field units specialized in mountain warfare.
[edit] Notes
- ^ It is generally accepted that the ratio required for the force launching an offensive to have a good chance of success is 3:1. In mountainous terrain, the required ratio is much more.
[edit] References
- Frederick Engels, (January 27, 1857) "Mountain Warfare in the Past and Present" New York Daily Tribune MECW Volume 15, p 164
[edit] External links
- Mountain Combat WWII Militaria: Combat Lessons
- High Altitude Warfare School Of the Indian Army [5]
- Mountain War in WWI The war in the Italian Dolomites (italian)
