Mariology of the popes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Catholic Mariology is the encyclopedic area of theology concerned with Mary, the Mother of God, not only with her life, but her veneration. The growth path of Mariology over the centuries has been influenced by a number of forces and factors, among which papal directives and decisions have often represented key milestones.
This article reviews the Mariology of the popes, as a force that has shaped and transformed the Marian dogmas, doctrines and devotions within the Roman Catholic Church.
Popes have always highlighted the inner link between Mary and the full acceptance of Jesus Christ as son of God.[1] The Church is the people of God as She is the Body of Christ. [2]
Popes were highly important for the development of doctrine and the veneration of the Blessed Virgin. They made decisions not only in the area of Marian beliefs (mariology) but also Marian practices and devotions. Before the twentieth century, Popes promulgated Marian veneration and beliefs by authorizing:
- new Marian feast days,
- prayers, initiatives,
- acceptance and support of Marian congregations,
- indulgences
- special privileges,
and, the formal recognition of Marian apparitions (such as more recently in Lourdes and Fatima). Since Pope Leo XIII, Popes promulgated mariology also with encyclicals, apostolic letters and with two dogmas (Immaculate Conception and Assumption) the promulgation of Marian Years (Pius XII, John Paul II) , the visit to Marian shrines (Benedict XVI in 2007) and by actively supporting the fathers of Vatican II as they highlighted the importance of Marian veneration (Pope John XXIII and Paul VI) in Lumen Gentium.
Popes also limited and restricted outgrowth of Marian venerations and teaching. Popular views like the Assumption and the Immaculate Conception developed into Papal teaching over time. In 1674 Pope Clement X (1670-1676) indexed books on Marian piety. [3] After the Council of Trent, Marian fraternities were founded, fostering Marian piety [4], some of which were outlawed by Popes. Not all Popes viewed Marian belief identically. Louis de Montfort was condemned in a Papal bull by Pope Clement X only to be praised by Pope Clement XI, canonized by Pope Pius XII and adored by Pope John Paul II.
Contents |
[edit] Papal influences on Marilogy
From the time the Council of Ephesus in 431 formally sanctioned devotion to the Virgin Mary as Theotokos, Mother of God, to Pope John Paul II's 1987 re-affirmation of the title Mother of the Church (first affirmed by Pope Paul VI) Mariology has been on a slow but steady growth path. This path has often been influenced by a triumvirate of forces consisting of papal directives, sensus fidei and the Mariology of the saints. The more recent journey of Mariology has been subject to a number of key papal decisions and directives, such as the first (and to date only) ex cathedra exercise of papal infallibility by Pope Pius XII in 1950 to define the Assumption of Mary as an article of faith for Roman Catholics.
[edit] Pope Leo the Great
| Saint Leo I | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Birth name | Leo |
| Papacy began | September 29, 440 |
| Papacy ended | November 10, 461 |
| Predecessor | Sixtus III |
| Successor | Hilarius |
| Born | 400 Tuscany, Italy |
| Died | November 10, 461 Rome, Italy |
Many early mariological concepts developed in the Eastern Church. From the West, Pope Damasus I and others defended Mary against Monophysitism, the teaching that Christ had only a divine nature. Accordingly, Mary is only the Mother of God, not the mother of the human Jesus. The most significant papal teaching opposing this view begin with Pope Martin I and continue with Pope Leo the Great. To define this issue, an ecumenical council was convoked first at Nicaea but later transferred to Chalcedon in the year 451. Leo the Great defended the teaching that Christ has two natures, one divine and one human.
- The same eternal, only-begotten of the eternal begetter was born of the holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary. His birth in time in no way subtracts from or adds to that divine and eternal birth of his: but its whole purpose is to restore humanity, who had been deceived, so that it might defeat death and, by its power, destroy the devil who held the power of death. Overcoming the originator of sin and death would be beyond us, had not he whom sin could not defile, nor could death hold down, taken up our nature and made it his own. He was conceived from the holy Spirit inside the womb of the virgin mother. Her virginity was as untouched in giving him birth as it was in conceiving him.
- By an unprecedented kind of birth, because it was inviolable virginity which supplied the material flesh without experiencing sexual desire. What was taken from the mother of the Lord was the nature without the guilt. And the fact that the birth was miraculous does not imply that in the lord Jesus Christ, born from the virgin's womb, the nature is different from ours. The same one is true God and true man.[5] [6]
To Leo the Great, Mariology is determined by Christology. If Christ would be divine only, everything on him would be divine. His eating would be symbolism. Only his divinity would have been crucified, buried and resurrected. Mary would only be the mother of God, and Christians would have no hope for their own resurrection. The nucleus of Christianity would be destroyed. [7] He asks for the veneration of the Virgin Mary both at the manger and at the throne of the heavenly father. The most unusual beginning of a truly human life through her was to give birth to Jesus, the Lord and Son of King David. [8]
[edit] The thirtheenth to the seventeenth century
During this period, several popes issued decrees and authorized feasts and processions in honor of Mary.
[edit] Pope Clement IV
Pope Clement IV (1265-1268) created a poem on the seven joys of Mary, which in its form is considered an early version of the Franciscan rosary Otto Stegmüller Clemens IV in Marienkunde, 1159
[edit] Pope Clement VIII
Pope Clement VIII (1592-1605) considered Marian piety the basis for Church reforms and issued the bull Dominici Gregis (February 3, 1603) to condemn negations of the virginity of Mary. He promulgated Marian congregations and supported the rosary culture with 19 Papal bulls. [9]
[edit] Pope Clement X
Pope Clement X (1670-1676) furthered Marian piety with additional indulgences and privileges to religious orders and cities to celebrate special Marian feasts. He opposed the Marian piety of Louis de Montfort (canonized by Pope Pius XII) with a bull published on December 15, 1673 and outlawed some manifestations of Marian devotions. Several bulls supported the frequent citing of the rosary. [10]
[edit] The eighteenth century
[edit] Pope Clement XI
Pope Clement XI (1700-1721) prepared the ground for the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, without issuing it. He permitted the title “Immaculate conception” and instructed the Holy Office in 1712 not to persecute anybody, using this title. The Feast of the immaculate conception, which existed only regionally, was prescribed for the whole Church. The Pope recommended the teachings and piety of Louis de Montfort and named him “Apostolic Missionary of France” [11] After the victory over the Turks, Clement extended the rosary feast to the whole Church. October 3, 1716. [12]
[edit] Pope Benedict XIII
Pope Benedict XIII (1724-1730) issued several indulgences in support of the rosary prayer, rosary processions and for praying the rosary on 15 “Marian Tuesdays”. He outlawed the Serafine rosary in 1727. He extended the Marian fests seven sorrows and Mount Carmel to the whole Church. [13]
[edit] Pope Clement XII
Pope Clement XII (1758-1769) outlawed all Marian litanies except the Litany of Loreto. In 1770 he permitted Spain to have the Immaculata as the main patron of the country and in 1767, he granted Spain the privilege, to add Mater Immaculata in the litany
[edit] Pope Benedict XIV
Pope Benedict XIV, a highly intellectual Pope wrote books about the feast days of Christ and Mary - De festis Christi at BMV [14] He furthered the Marian congregations Sodalities of our Lady with the bull Gloriosae dominae, issued on September 27, 1748. He increased indulgences for all who pray the rosary. [15]
[edit] Pope Clement XIV
Pope Clement XIV (1769-1775) had to deal with popular unrest in Southern Italy regarding celebrations and processions of the Immaculate Conception. He granted a privilege to the Franciscans in Palermo, that only they may celebrate the feast of the Immaculate Conception. Later he extended this privilege to other orders for private masses only. He outlawed he brotherhood of the immaculate conception but confirmed a knightly order with the same name. Allegedly, he had promised the King of Spain to dogmatize the IC and to canonize Maria de Agreda [16]
[edit] The ninetheenth century
[edit] Pope Pius IX
Pope Pius IX (1846-1878) was deeply religious and shared a strong devotion to Mary with many of his contemporaries. ´Catholic theology in the 19th century was dominated by the issue of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary and First Vatican Council, convened and for many years carefully prepared by Pius IX.
It was not until 1854 that the Pope, with the support of the overwhelming majority of Roman Catholic Bishops, whom he had consulted between 1851–1853, proclaimed the Immaculate Conception.[17] Eight years earlier, in 1846, the Pope had granted the unanimous wish of the bishops from the United States, and declared the Immaculata the patron of the USA. [18] During First Vatican Council, some 108 council fathers requested to add the words “Immaculate Virgin” to the Hail Mary.[19] Some fathers requested, the dogma of the Immaculate Conception to be included in the Creed of the Church, which was opposed by Pius IX [20]
Many French Catholics wished the dogmatization of Papal infallibility and the assumption of Mary in the forthcoming ecumenical council. [21] During Vatican One, nine mariological petitions favoured a possible assumption dogma, which however was strongly opposed by some council fathers, especially from Germany. On May 8, the fathers rejected a dogmatization at that time, a rejection shared by Pope Pius IX. The concept of Co-Redemptrix was also discussed but left open. In its support, Council fathers highlighted the divine motherhood of Mary and called her the mother of all graces. [22]
[edit] Pope Leo XIII
This concept Mediatrix has two meanings: Mary gave birth to the redeemerLeo XIII recalled Louis de Montfort and promulgated his Marian vision. He (as did later Pius X) applied the Marian analysis of Montfort to their analysis of the Church as a whole. [23] Leo XIII is clearly concerned about attempts to destroy the faith in Christ, and, if possible, to ban him from the face of the earth [24] The destruction of the ethical order will lead to disaster and war, so Leo XIII. He dedicates the human race to the Immaculate Heart of Jesus. But the re-Christianisation is not possible without Mary, so Leo XIII. In ten encyclicals on the rosary he promulgates Marian devotion. In his encyclical on the fiftieth anniversary of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception, he stresses her role in the redemption of humanity, mentioning Mary as Mediatrix and Co-Redemptrix. All this is in the spirit and words of Montfort. Leo XIII beatified him on the very day of his own golden jubilee as a priest.[25]
In his writings, Leo XIII fully embraces the concept of Mary mediating all graces. In 1883 he writes that nothing is as salvific and powerful as asking for the support of the virgin, the mediator of peace with God and of heavenly graces. [26] In his rosary encyclical Octobri Mense, he writes that Mary is administrator of graces on earth, part of a new salvation order. [27] In Dei Matris he states that Mary is our mediator because Christ our Lord is also our brother [28] And, in Jucunda Semper, he states, that the deepest reason, why we look for the protection of Mary through prayer, is most certainly her office as mediator of divine grace. [29] In Augustissimae Virginis, he states, Calling on Mary is the best way to be heard by God and to find his grace [30] Leo XII in clear words thus repearedly defined the papal ground for these two doctrines.
[edit] The twentieth century
[edit] Pope Pius X
Saint Pope Pius X (1903-1914) promoted daily communion. In his 1904 encyclical Ad Diem Illum , he views Mary in context of "restoring everything in Christ". Spiritually we all are her children and she is the mother of us Therefore she most be adored like a mother [31] Christ is the Word made Flesh and the Savior of mankind. He had a physical body like every other man: and as Savior of the human family, he had a spiritual and mystical body, the Church. This, the Pope argues, has consequences for our view of the Blessed Virgin.
She did not conceive the Eternal Son of God merely that He might be made man taking His human nature from her, but also, by giving him her human nature, that He might be the Redeemer of men. Mary, carrying the Savior within her, also carried all those whose life was contained in the life of the Savior. Therefore all the faithful united to Christ, are members of His body, of His flesh, and of His bones [32] from the womb of Mary like a body united to its head. Though a spiritual and mystical fashion, all are children of Mary, and she is their Mother. Mother, spiritually, but truly Mother of the members of Christ.(S. Aug. L. de S. Virginitate, c. 6). [33]
[edit] Pope Benedict XV
Pope Benedict XV (1914-1922) did not issue a Marian encyclical but addressed the issue of Co-Redemptrix in his Apostolic Letter, Inter Soldalica, issued March 22, 1918. [34]
- As the blessed Virgin Mary does not seem to participate in the public life of Jesus Chist ,and then, suddenly appears at the stations of his cross, she is not there without divine intention. She suffers with her suffering and dying son, almost as if she would have died herself. For the salvation of mankind, she gave up her rights as the mother of her son and sacrificed him for the reconciliation of divine justice, as far as she was permitted to do. Therefore, one can say, she redeemed with Christ the human race. [35]
Pope Benedict personally addressed in numerous letters the pilgrims at Marian sanctuaries. He named Mary, the Patron of Bavaria and permitted in Mexico the Feast of the IC of Guadaloupe. He authorized the Feast of Mary Mediator of all Graces. [36] He condemned the misuse of Marian statues and pictures, dressed in priestly robes, which he outlawed April 4, 1916. [37]
[edit] Pope Pius XI
Pope Pius XI ruled the Church from 1922 to 1939. During his pontificate, a possible dogma of the assumption was being discussed. He granted France the patron “Our lady assumed into heaven patron” [38] In 1930, he sent a Papal delegate to the celebration of the house of Mary in Loreto, and in 1931, 1500 years after the Council of Ephesus, he issued a call to the separated Orthodox Church to venerate Mary together and to overcome the schism. In several apostolic writings he supported the rosary prayer. In 1931, he instituted the fest of motherhood of Mary. Pope Pius XI liked to quote Berhanrd of Clairvaux: “We have everything through Mary” [39]
[edit] Pope Pius XII
As a young boy and in later life Eugenio Pacelli was an ardent follower of the Virgin Mary. Salus Populi Romani His pontificate was placed under her protection.Pope Pius XII dedicated Russia to the Immaculate Heart of Mary. He prescribed this Feast for the whole Church in 1944
The 1854 dogma of the Immaculate Conception by Pius IX defined the Virgin conceived without sin, as the mother of God and our mother. Pope Pius XII built on this in Mystici Corporis, which summarizes his mariology: Maria, whose sinless soul was filled with the divine spirit of Jesus Christ above all other created souls, "in the name of the whole human race" gave her consent "for a spiritual marriage between the Son of God and human nature." [40], thus elevating human nature beyond the realm of the purely material. She who, according to the flesh, was the mother of our Head, became mother of all His members. Through her powerful prayers, she obtained that the spirit of our Divine Redeemer, should be bestowed on the newly founded Church at Pentecost. [41] She is Most Holy Mother of all the members of Christ, and reigns in heaven with her Son, her body and soul refulgent with heavenly glory. [41]
On November 1, 1950, Pope Pius XII defined the dogma of the assumption:
- By the authority of our Lord Jesus Christ, of the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and by our own authority, we pronounce, declare, and define it to be a divinely revealed dogma: that the Immaculate Mother of God, the ever Virgin Mary, having completed the course of her earthly life, was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory."<ref> AAS 1950, 753 </ref>
The dogma of the bodily assumption of the Virgin Mary, is the crowning of the theology of Pope Pius XII. It was preceded by the 1946 encyclical Deiparae Virginis Mariae, which requested all Catholic bishops to express their opinion on a possible dogmatization. In this dogmatic statement, the phrase "having completed the course of her earthly life, " leaves open the question of whether the Virgin Mary died before her Assumption, or, whether she was assumed before death; both possibilities are allowed. Mary's Assumption was a divine gift to Mary as Mother of God. As Mary completed her race as a shining example to the human race, the perspective of the gift of assumption is offered to the whole human race.
On September 8, 1953, the encyclical Fulgens corona announced a Marian year for 1954, the centennial of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception . [42] Pope Pius XII left open the Mediatrix question, the role of the Virgin in the salvation acts of her son Jesus Christ. In the encyclical Ad caeli reginam he promulagated the feast, Queenship of Mary [43]. Pius XII, who was consecrated on May 13, 1917, the very day, Our Lady of Fatima is believed to have first appeared, consecrated the world to the Immaculate Heart of Mary in 1942, in accordance with the second "secret" of Our Lady of Fatima. (His remains were to be buried in the crypt of Saint Peter Basilica on the feast day of Our Lady of Fatima, October 13, 1958)
[edit] Pope Paul VI
Pope Paul VI (1963-1978) made extensive contributions to mariology (theological teaching and devotions) during his pontificate. He attempted to present the Marian teachings of the Church in view of her new ecumenical orientation. In his inaugural encyclical Ecclesiam Suam, the Pope called Mary the ideal of Christian perfection. He regards “devotion to the Mother of God as of paramount importance in living the life of the Gospel.” [44] In 1965, he writes that the Queen of Heaven is entrusted by God, as administrator of his compassion [45] In his 1966 encyclical on the rosary, he recommends the prayer in light of the war in Vietnam and the dangers of atomic conflicts. The rosary is a summary of gospel teaching. [46] In 1967 he pilgrimaged to Fatima. His new Missal includes all new Marian prayers. After 4 years of preparation, in 1974 Pope Paul VI issued the exhortation Marialis Cultus,.[47] he again promotes Marian devotions, highlighting the Angelus and Rosary prayers. Mary deserves the devotions because she is the mother of graces and because of her unique role in redemption. [48] The title, Mother of the Church, was proclaimed by Pope Paul VI at the Second Vatican Council.
Pope Paul VI in his inaugural encyclical Ecclesiam Suam called Mary the ideal of Christian perfection. He regards “devotion to the Mother of God as of paramount importance in living the life of the Gospel.” [49] In 1965, he writes that the Queen of Heaven is entrusted by God, as administrator of his compassion [50] In his 1966 encyclical on the rosary, he recommends the prayer in light of the war in Vietnam and the dangers of atomic conflicts. The rosary is a summary of gospel teaching. [51] In 1967 he pilgrimaged to Fatima. His new Missal includes all new Marian prayers. And in his 1974 exhortation Marialis Cultus, he again promotes Marian devotions, highlighting the Angelus and Rosary prayers. Mary deserves the devotions because she is the mother of graces and because of her unique role in redemption. [52]
[edit] John Paul II
The ancient title Mary Mother of the Church was proclaimed then by Pope Paul VI at the Second Vatican Council. In 1987, Pope John Paul II repeated this title Mother of the Church in his encyclical Redemptoris Mater and at a general audience on September 17, 1997. [53] The encyclical is a long and eloquent summary of modern mariology, making some novel points: According to John Paul, the Mother of the Redeemer, has a precise place in the plan of salvation.
- The Church teaches that Mary appeared on the horizon of salvation history before Christ. [54]
- If the greeting and the name "full of grace" say all this, in the context of the angel's announcement they refer first of all to the election of Mary as Mother of the Son of God. But at the same time the "fullness of grace" indicates all the supernatural munificence from which Mary benefits by being chosen and destined to be the Mother of Christ. If this election is fundamental for the accomplishment of God's salvific designs for humanity, and if the eternal choice in Christ and the vocation to the dignity of adopted children is the destiny of everyone, then the election of Mary is wholly exceptional and unique. Hence also the singularity and uniqueness of her place in the mystery of Christ. [55]
The 2002 Apostolic Letter Rosarium Virginis Mariae of Pope John Paul II on the Holy Rosary further communicated his Marian focus as he explained how his personal motto "Totus Tuus" was inspired by St. Louis de Montfort's doctrine on the excellence of Marian devotion and total consecration. The Pope truly venerated the Virgin Mary, as expressed in this motto Totus Tuus.
In recent years, to emphasize the role of Mary in the Roman Catholic Church, in Rosarium Virginis Mariae, Pope John Paul II quoted Saint Louis de Montfort, and said:
- “Our entire perfection consists in being conformed, united and consecrated to Jesus Christ. Hence the most perfect of all devotions is undoubtedly that which conforms, unites and consecrates us most perfectly to Jesus Christ.
- Now, since Mary is of all creatures the one most conformed to Jesus Christ, it follows that among all devotions that which most consecrates and conforms a soul to our Lord is devotion to Mary, his Holy Mother, and that the more a soul is consecrated to her the more will it be consecrated to Jesus Christ."[56] As the pontiff observed, Saint Louis de Montfort's approach to Mariology as presented in God Alone presents the logic of how an initially Christ centric view leads to total consecration to the Blessed Virgin Mary.[57]
[edit] Notes
- ^ Mystici Corporis , Lumen Gentium and Redemptoris Mater provide a modern Catholic understanding of this link.
- ^ see Pius XII,Mystici corporis, also John Paul II in Redemptoris Mater: The Second Vatican Council, by presenting Mary in the mystery of Christ, also finds the path to a deeper understanding of the mystery of the Church. Mary, as the Mother of Christ, is in a particular way united with the Church, "which the Lord established as his own body."
- ^ such as Avvisi salutary della virgine ai suoi devoti indiscreti
- ^ often on occupational lines (bakers, butchers etc)
- ^ Acta conciliorum Oecumenicorum, Vol.II,2,1,Nr.5 PL 54
- ^ www.dailycatholic.org/history/4ecumen1.htm
- ^ PL 54, 221, C 226
- ^ Sermons, 9,PL54, 227,CF,and 205 BC
- ^ Baumann, Clemens VII in Marienkunde, 1162
- ^ Baumann,in Marienkunde, 1163
- ^ R Lauretin, L’action du Saint siege par rapport au probleme de I’Immaculetee Conception in Marienkunde 1163
- ^ Baumann in Marienkunde 1163
- ^ Baumann in Marienkunde, 672
- ^ Opera Omnia Roma, 1747, 51
- ^ Baumann, Marienkunde, 672
- ^ F Masson, Le Cardinal de Bernis depuis son minister Paris, 1884, 156, 164
- ^ http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19930324en.html</ref
- ^ Pius IX in Bäumer, 245
- ^ and to add the Immaculata to the Litany of Loreto.
- ^ Bauer 566
- ^ Civilta Catolica February 6, 1869.
- ^ Bäumer 566
- ^ Köster 54
- ^ Annum sacrum 1899
- ^ J M Höcht, Fatima und Pius XII, 1956
- ^ Suprimi apostolatus Rudolf Graber, Die marianischen Weltrundschreiben der Päpste der letzten 100 Jahre, Würzburg; 1954 , p 30.
- ^ Encyclical Octobri Mense Graber 48
- ^ Graber 62
- ^ Graber, 83
- ^ Graber 115
- ^ Ad diem illum 10
- ^ (Ephes. v., 30),
- ^ Ad diem illum laetissimum 10
- ^ AAS, 1918, 181
- ^ AAS, 1918, 181
- ^ AAS 1921, 345
- ^ AAS 1916 146 Baumann in Marienkunde; 673
- ^ on March 22. 1922
- ^ Bäumer, Marienlexikon 246
- ^ Office for Holy Week
- ^ a b Pius XII, Enc. Mystici Corporis Christi, 110
- ^ AAS 1953, 577
- ^ AAS 1954, 625
- ^ Ecclesiam Suam 58
- ^ Apostolic Allocution Mense Majo, 1965
- ^ Bäumer 128
- ^ Pope Paul VI's Apostolic Letter Marialis Cultus http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_p-vi_exh_19740202_marialis-cultus_en.html
- ^ Bäumer 128
- ^ Ecclesiam Suam 58
- ^ Apostolic Allocution Mense Majo, 1965
- ^ Bäumer 128
- ^ Bäumer 128
- ^ Blessed Virgin Is Mother Of The Church
- ^ Redemptoris Mater 3
- ^ Redemptoris Mater 9
- ^ Pope John Paul II's Apostolic Letter Rosarium Virginis Mariae http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_20021016_rosarium-virginis-mariae_en.html
- ^ Saint Louis de Montfort, God Alone: The Collected Writings of St. Louis Marie De Montfort, Montfort Publications, 1995 ISBN 0910984557
[edit] See also
- Marian doctrines of the Catholic Church
- Mariology (Roman Catholic)
- History of Roman Catholic mariology
- Mariology of the saints
- Acts of Reparation to the Virgin Mary
- Protestant views of Mary
[edit] References
- Saint Louis de Montfort True Devotion to Mary ISBN 1593304706, also available as online text [1]
- Michael Schmaus, Mariologie, Katholische Dogmatik, München Vol V, 1955
- K Algermissen, Boes, Egelhard, Feckes, Michael Schmaus, Lexikon der Marienkunde, Verlag Friedrich Pustet, Regensburg, 1967
- Mariology Society of America http://mariologicalsocietyofamerica.us
- The Marian Library at University of Dayton http://campus.udayton.edu/mary
- Pope Pius IX, Apostolic Constitution
- Pope Pius XII, encyclicals and bulls
- Pope John Paul II, encyclical, apostolic letters and addresses
