Literature in the Hoysala Empire

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Chennakeshava temple, the first great Hoysala construction at Belur, their early capital
Chennakeshava temple, the first great Hoysala construction at Belur, their early capital

Literature in the Hoysala Empire referes to a body of literature composed predominantly in the Kannada language and to a lesser extent in the Sanskrit language[1] during the ascendancy of the Hoysala Empire which lasted from the 11th through the mid-14th century. The Hoysala empire was established around 1025 by Nripa Kama II, although it came into to political prominance in Southern India only during the rule of King Vishnuvardhana (1108–1152).[2] The empire lasted until 1343, although its power declined gradually after its initial defeat to the Mugal invaders in 1311.[3]

The Hoysala era is considered a golden age in the development of Kannada literature with Jain and Veerashaiva writers dominating the literary horizon. The earliest well-known Brahmin writers are from the Hoysala court. Native metres: the sangatya (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), shatpadi (six line verse) and ragale (lyrical narrative compositions) were first established during this period. However, many works in the traditional champu (various metres interspersed with paragraphs of prose) contuinued to be written.

Contents

[edit] Kannada writings

[edit] Overview

Old Kannada Hoysala inscription of 1220 CE at Ishwara temple Hassan district
Old Kannada Hoysala inscription of 1220 CE at Ishwara temple Hassan district

Beginning with the 12th century, important socio-political changes were taking place in the southern Deccan, in the region known as Gangavadi (modern southern Karnataka). During this period, the Hoysalas, native Kannadigas from the Malnad region (hill country in Karnataka) were on the ascendent as a political power.[4][5][6][7] They proudly called themselves Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas)[8] They had earlier distinguished themselves as suboridinates of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani and are known to have existed as chieftains from the mid-10th century,[9] although it was more two centuries before they could proclaim their independence from their overlords and became one of most powerful ruling families of southern India.[2][10] In 1116, King Vishnuvardhana defeated the Cholas of Tanjore and annexed Gangavadi,[11] thus bringing the southern Karnataka region back under native rule. Consequently, Kannada literature got impetus under the Hoysala patronage.[12]

Kannada literature during this period enjoyed royal patronage over a wide geographic area in the western Deccan in addition to the Hoysala court. The Western Chalukyas, the Kalachuris, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and the Silharas of Kolhapur are some of the ruling families who enthusiastically promoteed Kannada in inscriptions and literature.[13][14][15] In the Western Chalukyas court, Brahmasiva (c. 1100, court poet of Vikramaditya VI) and grammarian Nagavarma II (poet laureate of Jagadhekamalla II) are well-known.[16] In the Seuna court, Kamalabhava (1235, author of Santhishwarapurana), Achanna (Varadhamanapurana, c. 1198), Amugideva , a Vachanakara (Vachana poet, in the court of Singahana II) and Chaundarasa of Pandhrapur (author of Dashakumara Charite) were famous.[17] During the later half of the 12th century, the Kalachuri's annexed and controlled Kalyani (The Chalukya capital). This period was a glorious epoch in the history of Kannada poetry and produced hundreds of Vachana poets. Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Akka Mahadevi are some of the best-known poets from this cadre.[18][19] Nemichandra was patronised by the Silhara king Lakshmana.[20]

Kannada literature in the Hoysala empire during can be broadly sub-divided based on social developments. The dominance of Jain writings;[21] competition from Veerashaiva writers not belonging to the Vachana poetry tradition;[22] rebuttals to Shaiva writings from Jain writers;[23] early brahminical works;[24][25] secular writings[26] and the development of native metres. In fact, so strong was the conviction among the Hoysala rulers towards the development of Kannada language, it is claimed that even their epigraphs were more often written in polished and poetic language rather than prose, on material whose margins were suitably decorated with floral designs.[14]

[edit] 12th century writings

Kannada poets and writers in Hoysala Empire
(1100-1343 CE)
Nagachandra 1105
Harihara 1160
Vritta Vilasa 1160
Nemichandra 1170
Rudrabhatta 1180
Aggala 1189
Kanti 12th c.
Rajaditya 1190
Kereya Padmarasa 1195
Palkuriki Somanatha 1195
Devakavi 1200
Sujanottamsa 12th c.
Raghavanka 1200
Bhanduvarma 1200
Parsva Pandita 1205
Janna 1209
Somaraja 1222
Kavi Kama 12th c.
Sumanobana 1230
Gunavarma II 1235
Polalvadandanatha 1224
Andayya 1217-1235
Sisumayana 1232
Mallikarjuna 1245
Naraharitirtha 1281
Kumara Padmarasa 13th c.
Mahabala Kavi 1254
Keshiraja 1260
Kumudendu 1275
Ratta Kavi 1300
Nagaraja 1331

Nagachandra (1105), a scholar and the builder of the Mallinatha Jinalaya (Jain temple) in honor of the 19th Tirthankara in Bijapur, Karnataka wrote Ramachandra Charitapuranam and Mallinathapurana. According to some historians, he was patronised by Veera Ballala I.[27] The Ramachandra Charitrapuranam is a Jain version of the legend of lord Rama in champu style and contains sixteen sections. Considered a complementary work of Bharatha by Adikavi Pampa, the work earned Nagachandra the honorific, Abhinava Pampa.[28]

Famous among Kannada poets were Rudrabhatta, the first Brahmin poet (Smartha Brahmin), who authored Jagannatha Vijaya (1180) and was patronised by Chandramouli, a minister in the court of Veera Balla II. The writing is about the life of Lord Krishna in champu style leading to the fight with Banasura and is based on the earlier writing Vishnupurana.[29][30]

Nemichandra wrote the romance work Lilavati, Neminathapurana or Ardhanemi (Ardha means incomplete). He died before completing the book. Written with Banavasi as the background, Lilavathi narrates the love story of a prince and a princess who eventually marry after facing many obstacles.[31][32] Aggala authored Chandraprabhapurana. They were both patronised by Veera Ballala II.[33] Sujanottamsa wrote a panegyric on Gomateshwara in the 12th century.[34] Naraharitirtha, (1281) a minister in the court of Kalinga who was inducted into the Madhvacharya order composed many early devotional hymns (devaranamas) in praise of Lord Vishnu.[30]

Harihara (or Harisvara), who came from a family of accountants (karnikas), was one of the earliest Virashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana literary tradition. He wrote under the patronage of King Narasimha I. He wrote the Girijakalyana in the Kalidasa tradition, employing the old Jain champu style, with the story leading to the marriage of Shiva and Parvati in ten sections.[35][36] In a deviation from the norm, Harihara avoided glorifying saintly mortals. His is credited with more than one hundred poems in ragale metre, called the Nambiyanana ragale (1160) after the saint Nambiyana (or Shivaganada ragale) and praising Virupaksha (a form of Hindu god Shiva) with an ability to express emotions as few poets could.[37] For his poetic talent, he has earned the honorific "poet of exuberance" (utsava kavi).[38] His other writings are Basavarajadevararagale in ragale metre, Pampa sataka a centum of verses in praise of lord Virupaksha of Hampi and Sivaganadaragalegalu. He was patronised by king Narasimha I.[39]

Rajaditya of Puvinabage (1190) showed skill in reducing to easy verse his mathematical subjects in his (ganita) works. He was patronised by Veera Ballala II and authored Vyavaharaganita, Kshetraganita and Lilavati.[40][41] Kereya Padmarasa who was patronised by Narasimha I wrote Dikshabodhe in the ragale metre and would later become the hero of another work Padmarajapurana.[33]

Palkuriki Somanatha from Godavari district authored both Kannada and Telugu works. In Kannada his works are Silasampadane, Sahasragananama and Pancharatna, besides many poems in ragale metre and Vachanas. He is known to have humbled many Vaishnava poets in debates and finally died in Kailash.[42]

[edit] 13th century writings

Harihar's nephew, Raghavanka (1200) of Hampi, was the first to introduce the shatpadi metre into Kannada literature in his Harishchandra Kavya, which is considered a classic even though it occasionally violates strict rules of Kannada grammar.[43][44] A dramatist writing an epic, Raghavanka brings out in an awe-inspiring manner the clash of personalities; between sage Vishvamitra and sage Vashishta and between Harishchandra and Vishvamitra. It is believed that in no other language has the story of King Harishchandra been dealt with this interpretation. The writing is an original both in tradition and inspiration fully utilizing the potential of the shatpadi metre.[45] A noteworthy piece of elegiac verse here is the mourning of Chandramati over the death of her young son Lohitashva, from snake bite, while gathering firewood for his Brahmin taskmaster.[46] His other famous writings are the Siddharama Charitra, a eulogy of the dynamic and compassionate Virashiava saint Siddharama of the 12th century,[45] the Somanathacharite, which describes the life of Somayya of Puligere, Hariharamahatva a eulogy of Harisvara of Hampi, Viresvaracharita and Sarabhacharitra.[37][47]

In 1209, the Jain scholar and army commander Janna wrote among other classics, Yashodhara Charite, a unique set of stories dealing with perversion. In one of his stories, a king intends to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to a local deity, Mariamma. Taking pity on the boys, the king releases them and gives up the practice of human sacrifice.[48][49][50] In another story, the poet narrates the infatuation of a man for his friends wife. Having killed his friend, the man abducts the wife who dies of grief. Overcome by repentance, he burns himself on the funeral pyre of the woman.[51] In honour of this work, Janna received the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavichakravarthi) from his patron King Veera Ballala II.[52] His other classic Anathanatha Purana (1230) deals with the life of the fourteenth Tirthankar Ananthanatha.[53]

The next great writer and grammarian of the 13th century, who came from a family of famous poet-writers was Keshiraja (1260). Keshiraja's grandfather, Sumanobana was poet laureate to King Narasimha I and his father Mallikarjuna graced the Hoysala court too. Though five of Keshiraja's writings are not traceable, his enduring work on Kannada grammar, Shabdamanidarpana ("Mirror of Word Jewels") is available and testify to his scholarly acumen and literary taste.[54][55][56] True to his wish that his writing on grammar should "last as long as the sun, the moon, the occeans and the Meru mountain lasted", Shabdamanidharpana is popular even today. It is considered a standard authority on old Kannada grammar and is prescribed as a text book for students of graduate and post graduate level studies in Kannada. Though Keshiraja followed the model of Sanskrit grammar of the Katantra school and that of earlier writings on Kannada grammar, his work has an originality of its own.[54] Keshiraja's extinct writings are Cholapalaka Charitam, Sri Chitramale, Shubhadraharana, Prabodhachandra and Kiratam (or Kiratarjuniyam)[54]

Kumara Padmarasa wrote the Sananda Charitre in shatpadi metre.[57] Andayya wrote Madana Vijaya in 1235 ("Triumph of cupid").[58] The poem narrates the story of the moon being imprisoned by Shiva. In his anger, Cupid (God Manmta) assailed Shiva with his arrows only to be cursed by Shiva that he be separated from his beloved. Cupid then contrived to rid himself of Shiva's curse. The work which is also known as Sobagina Suggi, Kavane Gella and Kabbigara-kava is unique in that it was written in pure Kannada without any usage of assimilated Sanskrit words (tatsamas), limiting the words to indigenous words (desya) and naturalised Sanskrit words (tadbhava). Later works however have not maintained this effort.[59] Bhanduvarma wrote Harivamsabhyudaya and Jivasambhodana, a work on morals and renunciation written addressing the soul. Sisumayana introduced a new form of composition in 1232 called sangatya in Anjanacharita and Tripuradhahana, works intended to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument.[60][58]

Mallikarjuna, an ascetic compiled an anthology called Suktisudharnava in 1245.[58] Kumudendu authored a Jaina version of Ramayana in shatpadi metre in 1275, influenced by Pampa Ramayana . Ratta Kavi work was Rattasutra (or Rattamala) in 1300, a work on treatment of natural phenomenon like rain, earthquakes and lightening planets and omens.[60][56] Towards the end of the Hoysala rule, Nagaraja wrote Punyasrava in 1331 in champu style, a work that narrates the stories of puranic heroes in 52 tales and said to be a translation from a Sanskrit writing.[60][56]

A romance work from Devakavi was Kusumavali in 1200, and Somaraja a Virashaiva wrote Sringarasara and Udbhatakavya in 1222.[61] A work on poetics called Sringararatnakara is attributed to Kavi Kama. Sumanobana was the court poet of King Vira Narasimha II. Other Jain writers were Parsva Pandita, author of Paravanathapurana and Gunavarma II wrote Pushpadanta purana.[33][58] Polalvadandanatha who wrote Haricharitra was a minister and was patronised by Veera Ballala II and Vira Narasimha II.[33]

[edit] Sanskrit writings

The Hoysala period was an age of great Sanskrit works[62][63] Madhwacharya, propounder of the Dvaita philosophy wrote Rigbhshya on Brahmasutras, Anuvyakhya, a commentary on Upanishads and Bhagavadgita, an epitome on Mahabharata called Bharatatatparyanirnaya, a commentary on hymns of Rig Veda called Rigvedavyakhya and a number of polemical works rebutting the doctrines of other schools of Vedas.[64][65] Ramanujacharya expounded his Vishishtadvaita from his Matha in Melkote[66][67] Vidyatirtha wrote Rudraprshnabhashya. These works were later absorbed and assimilated by Sayanacharya, brother of Vidyaranya.[68] Bharatasvamin who was patronised by King Ramanatha (of the Hoysala branch in Tamil region) wrote a commentary on Samaveda, Shadgurusishya wrote commentary on Aitareya Brahmana and Aranyaka, Katyayana wrote Sarvanukramani. A family of hereditary poets called the Vidyacharkravarti (whose names have not been preserved) wrote Gadyakarnamrita describing a war between Vira Narasimha II and the Pandyas, Rukminikalyana (poems), Alankarasarvasva and Kavyaprakasa. Kalyani Devi, a sister of Madhwacharya and Trivikarma wrote many commentaries on the Dvaita philosophy and Narayana Pandita composed Madhwavijaya, Manimanjari and a poem called Parijataharana.[69]

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Pollock (2006), pp. 288–289
  2. ^ a b Thapar (2003), p. 368
  3. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 129
  4. ^ Quote:"A purely Karnataka dynasty" (Moraes 1931, p10)
  5. ^ Rice, B.L. (1897), p335
  6. ^ Natives of South Karnataka (Chopra 2003, p150 Part–1)
  7. ^ Keay (2000), p. 251
  8. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 123
  9. ^ From the Marle inscription (Chopra 2003, p. 149, part–1)
  10. ^ Keay (2000), p. 252
  11. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 124
  12. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 19
  13. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 68
  14. ^ a b Ayyar (2006), p. 600
  15. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 133–134, p. 143, pp. 114–115
  16. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 68
  17. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 143
  18. ^ More than 300 poets including 33 women poets (Shiva Prakash 1997, pp. 167–168, 178, 181)
  19. ^ More than 200 poets including 40 or more women poets (Nagaraj in Sheldon, 2003, p. 348)
  20. ^ Rice E.P. (1926), p. 43
  21. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 358
  22. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 361
  23. ^ Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 366
  24. ^ Rudhrabhatta and Naraharitirtha (Sastri, 1955, p. 364)
  25. ^ Kavi Kama and Deva (Narasimhacharya 1988, p. 20)
  26. ^ Rajaditya's ganita (mathematics) writings (1190) and Ratta Kavi's Rattasutra on natural phenomena are examples (Sastri 1955, pp. 358–359)
  27. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 133
  28. ^ In this work which differes from Valmiki Ramayana in many ways, Lord Rama takes Jainadiksha (converts to Jainism), becomes an ascetic and attains enlightenment (Nirvana), (Sastri 1955, pp. 357–358)
  29. ^ champu metre is a composition in a mixed prose-verse form (Narasimhacharya 1988, p12)
  30. ^ a b Sastri (1955) p. 364
  31. ^ E.P.Rice (1921), p. 43
  32. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 358
  33. ^ a b c d Narasimhacharya 1988, p. 20
  34. ^ Rice B.L. (1897), p. 499
  35. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 362
  36. ^ Narasimhacharya, (1988), p. 20
  37. ^ a b E.P.Rice (1921), p. 60
  38. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1181
  39. ^ Ragales are poems in blank verse. Harihara has more than 100 poems to his credit, (Kamath 2001, p. 133)
  40. ^ These are early Kannada works on mathematics (Narasimhacharya 1988, pp. 62–64)
  41. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 358
  42. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 362
  43. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 362
  44. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 20
  45. ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1181
  46. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1149
  47. ^ (Kamath 2001, p. 134)
  48. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 359
  49. ^ E.P. Rice (1921), pp. 43–44
  50. ^ Yashodharacharite, a Jain work is considered a classic in Kannada language, Kamath (2001), p. 133
  51. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1181
  52. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p20
  53. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 620
  54. ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1476
  55. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 359
  56. ^ a b c E.P.Rice (1921), p. 45
  57. ^ Sahitya Academi (1992), p. 4003
  58. ^ a b c d E.P.Rice (1921), p. 44
  59. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 357
  60. ^ a b c Sastri (1955), p. 359
  61. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p21
  62. ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 132–134
  63. ^ Sastri (1955), pp. 309–330
  64. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 155
  65. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 324
  66. ^ Fearing persecution by the Cholas who were staunch Shaiva, Ramanujacharya came to Karnataka in 1098 and lived there till 1122. He first lived in Tondanur and then moved to Melkote where the Cheluvanarayana temple and a well organised Matha were built (Kamath 2001, p. 151)
  67. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 388
  68. ^ Prof. K.T. Pandurangi in Kamath 2001, pp. 132–133
  69. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 133

[edit] References

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  • Moraes, George M. [1931] (1990). The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Medieval Karnataka. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0595-0. 
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[edit] See also