Indo-European sound laws

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Map of the main isoglosses between the branches of Indo-European
Map of the main isoglosses between the branches of Indo-European

As the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) broke up, its sound system diverged as well, according to various sound laws in the daughter languages.

Notable among these are Grimm's law in Proto-Germanic, loss of prevocalic *p- in Proto-Celtic, loss of prevocalic *s- in Proto-Greek, Brugmann's law in Proto-Indo-Iranian. Grassmann's law and Bartholomae's law may or may not have been still common Indo-European.

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Note - these draught tables need to be completed, verified, and the allophones explained.

Contents

[edit] Consonants

Proto-Indo-European consonants and their reflexes in the Indo-European daughter languages
Trad. PIE Glot. PIE Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Armenian Albanian Tocharian Hittite Greek Latin Old Irish Gothic English
*p *p⁽ʰ⁾ p h; w1 p Ø; ch [x]2 f; b [β]3; p4 f; v, f8; p4
*t *t⁽ʰ⁾ t tʽ [tʰ] t t; c [c]5 t; z [ʦ]5 t t; th [θ]8 þ [θ]; d [ð]3; t4 th; d3; t4
*k̂ *k̂⁽ʰ⁾ ś [ɕ] s š [ʃ] s th [θ]; k9 k; ś [ɕ]9 k c [k] c [k]; ch [x]8 h; g [ɣ]3; k4 h; Ø8; y3; k4
*k *k⁽ʰ⁾ k; c [ʧ]5 k; č [ʧ]5; c [ʦ]10 k kʻ [kʰ] k
*kʷ *kʷ⁽ʰ⁾ k; s5; q [c]10 ku p; t5; k6 q [kʷ]; c [k]7 ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w3; q [kʷ]4 wh; w3; qu4
*b *p’ b p b p b b; m / bh [w] 8 p
*d *t’ d t d; dh [ð]8 ts; ś [ɕ]5 t d d; dh [ð]8 t
*ĝ *k̂’ j [ʤ] z ž [ʒ] c [ʦ] dh [ð]; g9 k; ś [ɕ]9 k g g; gh [ɣ]8 k c / k; ch10
*g *k’ g; j [ʤ]5 g; ž [ʒ]5; dz10 g k g
*gʷ *kʷ’ g; z5; gj [ɟ]10 ku b; d5; g6 u [w > v]; gu [gʷ]15 b; m / bh [w] 8 q [kʷ] qu
*bʰ *b⁽ʰ⁾ / *pʰ bh [bʱ] b b; w8 b p p ph [pʰ] f; b 8 b [β] b; v / f8
*dʰ *d⁽ʰ⁾ / *tʰ dh [dʱ] d t; c [c]5 t th [tʰ] f; d8; b14 d; dh [ð]8 d [ð] d
*ĝʰ *ĝ⁽ʰ⁾ / *k̂ʰ h [ɦ] z ž [ʒ] j [ʣ]; z8 dh [ð]; d9 k; ś [ɕ]5 k ch [kʰ] h; h / g9 g; gh [ɣ]8 g [ɣ] g; y / w8
*gʰ *g⁽ʰ⁾ / *kʰ gh [gʱ]; h [ɦ]5 g; ǰ [ʤ]5 g; ž [ʒ]5; dz10 g g; ǰ [ʤ]5 g
*gʷʰ *gʷ⁽ʰ⁾ / *kʷʰ g; z5; gj [ɟ]10 ku ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]5; ch [kʰ]6 f; g / u [w]8; gu [gʷ]15 g g [ɣ] / b [β]; w8 g / b; w8
*s *s s; ṣ [ʂ]11 h [h, x]; s2; š [ʃ]11 s; x [x]11 s; š [ʃ]11 h; s2; -8 sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ]12 s; ṣ [ʂ] š [s] h; s2; -8 s; r8 s s; z3 s; r3
*m *m m m; ˛ [˜]13 m; n13 m; Ø13 m; n13 m b; m / bh [w]8; n13 m; Ø13
*n *n n n; ˛ [˜]13 n n; ñ [ɲ] n
*l *l r (dial. l) r l l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ] l; ll [ɫ]8 l
*r *r r
*i̯ *i̯ y [j] j [j] Ø gj [ɟ]; Ø y [j] z [?zd/ʣ > z] / h; Ø 8 i [j]; Ø 8 Ø j y
*u̯ *u̯ v [ʋ] v [w] v v [ʋ] g / w v w w > h / Ø u [w > v] f; Ø / w8 w
Trad. PIE Glot. PIE Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Armenian Albanian Tocharian Hittite Greek Latin Old Irish Gothic English
Notes:
  • 1 After vowels.
  • 2 Before a plosive (p, t, k).
  • 3 Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's Law).
  • 4 After a (Proto-Germanic) fricative (s, f).
  • 5 Before a (PIE) front vowel (i, e).
  • 6 Before or after a (PIE) u.
  • 7 Before or after a (PIE) o, u.
  • 8 Between vowels.
  • 9 Before a resonant.
  • 10 Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
  • 11 After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
  • 12 Before a stressed vowel.
  • 13 At the end of a word.
  • 14 After u, r or before r, l.
  • 15 After n.

[edit] Vowels and syllabic consonants

Proto-Indo-European vowels and syllabic consonants, and their reflexes in the Indo-European daughter languages
Old reconstr. New reconstr. Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Armenian Albanian Tocharian Hittite Greek Latin Proto-Celtic Gothic
*e *e a a e e e je, ie, e, i; ja 12 ä e, i e e e i; ai [ɛ]2
*h₁e
*a (*a 3) o a a ha, a ā ha, a a a a a
*h₂e
*o *h₃e o, a a a, e a o o o
*o a, ā 4 a, ā 4
*ə *h₁ i i, Ø Ø Ø a, Ø ā a e a a a, Ø
*h₂ h a
*h₃ o
*- *h₁ Ø Ø e (a?) Ø Ø a e (o) Ø Ø Ø
*h₂ a ha a
*h₃ a a, ha o
*ē *ē ā ā ě ė i o, ua a/e?; ā? 8 e, i ē ē ī ē
*eh₁
*ā (*ā 3) a o a a/o? a, ah ā > ē ā ā ā
*eh₂
*ō *ō uo u e a/ā?; ū? 8 a ō ō ā; ū 8
*eh₃
*i *i i i ь i i i; e 10 ä i i i i i
*ī *ih₁ ī ī i y [i:] i i ī ī ī ei [i:]
*ih₂ i or (j)a? 7 yā ī or (j)ā? 7
*ih₃ ī or (j)ō? 7
*ei *ei ē ōi, aē 4 ei, ie 5 i e ei ī īa, ē 6
*h₁ei
*oi *oi ě ai, ie5 e e, ai ay ū oe ai
*h₃ei
*ai (*ai 3) ai ae ae
*h₂ei
*ēi *ēi āi; ā 8 āi; ā(i) 8 i āi > ēi ī? ai
*ōi *ōi (*oei) y; u 8 ai; ui 8 ai āi > ēi ō u 8
*āi *eh₂ei ě āi > ēi ae ai
*u *u u u ъ u u u; y 11 ä u u u u; o 1 u; au [ɔ] 2
*ū *uh₁ ū ū y ū y; i 8 u ū ū ū ū
*uh₂ u or (w)a? 7 wā ū or (w)ā? 7
*uh₃ ū or (w)ō? 7
*eu *eu ō ə̄u, ao 4 ju iau oy e u u eu ū ūa; ō 9 iu
*h₁eu
*ou *ou u au a o, au ou au
*h₃eu
*au (*au 3) aw au au
*h₂eu
*ēu *ēu āu āu u iau ū? au
*ōu *ōu ō
*m̥ *m̥ a a ę im̃; um̃ 14 am a äm am a em em, am um
*m̥̅ *mH ā ā ìm; ùm 14 ama mā mē, mā, mō mā mā
*m̥m am am ьm/ъm im; um 14 am am em am
*n̥ *n̥ a a ę iñ; uñ 14 an a än an a en en, an un
*n̥̄ *nH ā ā ìn; ùn 14 ana nā nē, nā, nō nā nā
*n̥n an an ьn/ъn iñ; uñ 14 an an en an
*l̥ *l̥ ṛ ərə lь/lъ il̃; ul̃ 14 al äl al la ol li ul
*l̥̄ *lH īr; ūr 13 arə ìl; ùl 14 ala al lā lē, lā, lō lā lā
*l̥l ir; ur 13 ar ьl/ъl il; ul 14 al, la al el al
*r̥ *r̥ ṛ ərə rь/rъ ir̃; ur̃ 14 ar ri är ar ra or ri aur
*r̥̄ *rH īr; ūr 13 arə ìr; ùr 14 ara ra rā rē, rā, rō rā rā
*r̥r ir; ur 13 ar ьr/ъr ir; ur 14 ar ar ar ar
Old reconstr. New reconstr. Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Armenian Albanian Tocharian Hittite Greek Latin Old Irish Gothic
Notes
  • 1 Before wa.
  • 2 Before r, h.
  • 3 The existence of PIE non-allophonic a is disputed.
  • 4 In open syllables (Brugmann's law).
  • 5 Under stress.
  • 6 Before palatal consonants.
  • 7 The so-called breaking is disputed (typical examples are *proti-h₃kʷo- > Ved. prátīkam ~ Gk. πρόσωπον; *gʷih₃u̯o- > Ved. jīvá- ~ Arm. keank‘, Gk. ζωός; *duh₂ro- > Ved. dūrá- ~ Arm. erkar, Gk. δηρός)
  • 8 In a final syllable.
  • 9 Before velars and unstressed
  • 10 Before ā in the following syllable.
  • 11 Before i in the following syllable.
  • 12 In a closed syllable.
  • 13 In the neighbourhood of labials.
  • 14 In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.

[edit] Sound laws within PIE

A few sound-laws can be reconstructed that may have been effective prior to the final breakup of PIE by internal reconstruction.

[edit] See also


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