History of Dalmatia

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History of Dalmatia
Dalmatae
Dalmatia (Roman province)
Pagania
Republic of Ragusa
Republic of Poljica
Illyrian provinces
Kingdom of Dalmatia
Littoral Banovina
This article traces the history of the Croatian region of Dalmatia. For more details on modern Dalmatia see the main article.

Contents

[edit] Antiquity

Dalmatia in the Roman Empire.
Dalmatia in the Roman Empire.
Main article: Dalmatia (Roman province)

Dalmatia's name is derived from the name of an Illyrian tribe called the Dalmatae who lived in the area of the eastern Adriatic coast in the 1st millennium BC. The history of Dalmatia began when the Dalmatae tribe declared itself independent of Gentius, the King of ancient Illyria, and established a Republic. The name "Dalmatia" was in use probably from the second half of the 2nd century and certainly from the first half of the 1st century BC, defining a coastal area of the eastern Adriatic between the Krka and Neretva rivers.[1] Its territory stretched northwards from the river Neretva to the river Cetina, and later to the Krka, where it met the confines of Liburnia. Its capital during this period was Delminium.

The Roman Republic attempted to subdue the Illyrian tribes during the Illyrian Wars of 220 and 168 BC, and succeded, forming the Roman province of Illyricum. The Romans, however, were often faced by rebellions of various Illyrian tribes. In 156 BC the Dalmatae themselves were attacked by a Roman army for the first time, and were defeated but not fully subdued. They raised a number of formidable revolts, more notable of which was that of 33 BC. In AD 9 the Dalmatians formed an alliance with the Pannonians and rebelled for the last time,[2] but were finally crushed by Tiberius. In AD 10, Illyricum was divided by Emperor Augustus into two provinces: Pannonia and Dalmatia which spread into a larger area inland to cover all of the Dinaric Alps and most of the eastern Adriatic coast.[3] This event was followed by total submission and a ready acceptance of Roman culture which spread all over Illyria.

The province of Dalmatia spread inland to cover all of the Dinaric Alps and most of the eastern Adriatic coast, while its new capital was Salona. During the general reorganization of Roman Empire in 297 AD, the existing provincial organization in Dalmatia was changed, with the southern part of the Narona district becoming the Roman province of Praevalitana. The Narona district was a region from Budva to the river Cetina,[4] while Liburnia, also one of the provincia Dalmatiarum, was north of the Cetina and included Scardona. Liburnia enjoyed the status of a separate administrative-territorial unit later on during the Empire's final decades.[5]
Later on, Dalmatia was the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian who constructed the famous Diocletian's Palace for his retirement a few kilometers south of Salona, in Spalatum. The Palace is now the heart of the modern-day capital of Dalmatia, Split.[6][7]

The historian Theodore Mommsen wrote in his book, The Provinces of the Roman Empire, that all Dalmatia was fully romanized by the 4th century AD. However, analysis of archaeological material from that period has shown that the process of romanization was rather selective. While urban centers, both coastal and inland, were almost completely romanized, the situation in the countryside was completely different. Despite the Illyrians being subject to a strong process of acculturation, they continued to speak their native language, worship their own gods and traditions, and follow their own social-political tribal organization which was adapted to Roman administration and political structure only in some necessities.[8]

The collapse of the Western Roman Empire, with the beginning of the Migration Period, left the region subject to Gothic rulers, Odoacer and Theodoric the Great. They ruled Dalmatia from 476 to 535 AD, when it was restored to the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire by Justinian I (Liburnia stayed in Gothic possession as Liburnia Tarsatica[9]).

[edit] Medieval period

[edit] Early Middle Ages (AD 500-1000)

The Byzantine Empire at the accession of Leo III the Isaurian, c. AD 717. Dalmatian enclaves are visible along the Adriatic shore.
The Byzantine Empire at the accession of Leo III the Isaurian, c. AD 717. Dalmatian enclaves are visible along the Adriatic shore.
See also: Kingdom of Croatia (Medieval), Medieval Dalmatian principalities, and Dalmatian language

In 568 AD the Avar invasions devastated Dalmatia, and the decimated Roman population survived only in the fortified Dalmatian coastal cities. The exception was Salona, the capital of Dalmatia, who's size made it difficult to defend. It was sacked some years later in 639 AD, while the inhabitants who escaped by sea later established themselves in the nearby long-abandoned Diocletian's Palace, thus greatly increasing the size and significance of the city of Spalatum, Salona's successor. The romanized population of the interior survived only in mountainous regions, as a shepherd people called Morlachs. Some inhabitants managed to take refuge in the Adriatic islands, founding new settlements. Cut off from the remnants of the Roman world, the romanized Dalmatians evolved their own Romance language, Dalmatian, which is now extinct but not until it exerted a strong influence on the local Slavic Chakavian dialect. The Avars were followed by the great South Slavic migrations. The Slavs, loosely allied with the Avars, permanently settled the region in the first half of the 7th century AD and remained its predominant population ever since.

Because of these dramatic events, the territorial meaning of the term "Dalmatia" shrunk in the Middle Ages. Up to the Avar invasions, "Dalmatia" referred to a much larger area that stretched far inland, whereas from the 6th century onwards it usually referred to the eastern Adriatic coast and the immediate hinterland. Politically, Dalmatia was not a unififed entity. It consisted of Slavic towns with Byzantine enclaves interspersed randomly along the coast. Some authors use the term to exclusively refer to Byzantine Dalmatia (i.e. the few cities and islands nominally under Byzantine authority).
In the 7th century AD, Dalmatia became distinctly divided between two different communities:

  • The hinterland populated by Slavic tribes, roughly Croats to the north and Serbs to south; approximately separated by the Cetina river.
  • The Byzantine enclaves populated by the native Romance-speaking descendants of Romans and Illyrians, who populated Ragusa (Dubrovnik), Spalatum (Split), Iadera (Zadar), Tragurium (Trogir), and other coastal towns.

These cities and towns remained influential as they were well fortified and maintained their connection with the Byzantine Empire. The two communities were somewhat hostile at first, but as the Slavs became Christianized this tension increasingly subsided. A degree of cultural mingling soon took place, in some enclaves stronger, in others weaker, as Slavic influence and culture was more accentuated in Ragusa, Spalatum, and Tragurium.

The Slavs soon formed their own realm: the Principality of Dalmatia, a Medieval Croatian state ruled by native Princes of Guduscan origin. In 806 the Principality was temporarily added to the Frankish Empire, but the cities were restored to Byzantium by the Treaty of Aachen in 812. The treaty had also slightly expanded the Principality of Dalmatia eastwards. The Saracens raided the southernmost cities in 840 and 842, but this threat was eliminated by a common Frankish-Byzantinian campaign of 871.
During this time (the first half of the 9th century), Prince Ljudevit Posavski of the northern Croat Principality of Pannonia fought wars with Prince Borna of Dalmatia, who was a Guduscan. The Guduscans, his own, indigenous people of Dalmatia, abandoned Borna's army in the heat of battle and crossed to Ljudevit's side, ensuring his victory. Borna's personal guard saved him from certain death on the battlefield. Ljudevit was soon forced out of his Pannonian realm by the Frankish forces that according to their historians controlled the greater part of Dalmatia.

The establishment of cordial relations between the cities and the Croatian dukedom seriously began with the reign of Prince Mislav (835), who signed an official peace treaty with the Venetian Doge Pietro Tradonico in 840, and began donating lands to the churches and monasteries. Dalmatia's first Croatian ruler and founder of the Trpimirović dynasty, Duke Trpimir, reestablished the Principality of Dalmatia as the Duchy of the Croats. In his wars against the Bulgar Khans and their Serbian subjects, he greatly expanded the Duchy's territory to include all the lands up to the river of Drina, thereby including the majority of Bosnia. His powerful realm extended influence further southwards to Zachlumia slightly. In AD 920 Duke Tomislav was granted the governance of the Byzantine Dalmatian city enclaves by Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus with the support of Pope John X. Tomislav managed to subdue the northern Croatian Principality of Pannonia to his authority. In 925 AD he was crowned in Tomislavgrad, establishing the Kingdom of Croatia, and extending his influence further southwards to Zachlumia.
The most notable Croatian noble families from Dalmatia are: the Karinjan, Lapčan, Polečić, Tugomirić, Kukar, Snačić, Gusić, Šubić (later the Zrinski), Mogorović, Lačničić, Jamometić, and Kačić. Within the borders of ancient Roman Dalmatia, on the island of Krk, ruled the noble family Krčki (later Frankopan).

The Croatian kings exacted tribute from the Byzantine cities and consolidated their power in the purely Croatian-settled littoral cities such as Nin, Biograd and Šibenik, which was founded by Croatian kings. They also asserted control over the bordering southern duchies. Rulers of the medieval Croatian state who had control over the Dalmatian littoral and the cities were the dukes Trpimir, Domagoj, Branimir, and the kings Tomislav, Trpimir II, Krešimir I, Stjepan Držislav, Petar Krešimir IV and Demetrius Zvonimir.

[edit] High Middle Ages (AD 1000-1300)

The Byzantine Empire and its themata in 1045. From 535 to 1204 AD the Empire held suzerainty over Croatia, the coastal Dalmatian city-states, and the Venetian Republic. The de facto Byzantine control varied significantly, though.
The Byzantine Empire and its themata in 1045. From 535 to 1204 AD the Empire held suzerainty over Croatia, the coastal Dalmatian city-states, and the Venetian Republic. The de facto Byzantine control varied significantly, though.

The High Middle Ages in Dalmatia are marked by the fluctuating and waning influence of the Byzantine Empire, and by the struggle of the neighboring powers, the Venetian Republic, the Kingdom of Croatia, and (later) the Kingdom of Hungary, to fill the power vacuum.[10] The early medieval Dalmatia had still included much of the hinterland covered by the old Roman province of Dalmatia. However, the toponym "Dalmatia" started to shift more towards including only the coastal, Adriatic areas, rather than the mountains inland. By the 15th century, use of other regional names would be introduced, marking the shrinking of the borders of Dalmatia to the narrow littoral area where the Dalmatian language was spoken.

The Empire continuously held formal suzerainty over the entire area, including Croatia and Venice, but the de facto impact of this was very periodic and increasingly irrelevant. The Dalmatian littoral cities, being unable to form a league due to their internal dissensions, were caught in the midst of a power struggle they were unable to influence. Their own political situation thus became increasingly complex. They were surrounded by the waning Kingdom of Croatia, which was increasingly under the influence of the Kingdom of Hungary. However, the Croatian South Slavs surrounded and increasingly inhabited the coastal cities and the Adriatic islands, particularly Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and Spalatum (Split), greatly influencing the local Romance Dalmatian language and culture.
The cities acknowledged the suzerainty of Byzantium, but when the Empire's power weakened, functioned increasingly as city-states. Croatia and the Venetian Republic also acknowledged nominal Imperial rule. While Venice, due to its increasing financial wealth was able to almost completely ignore this, Croatia came under de facto Hungarian control whenever the Empire could no longer maintain its influence on the region.

The city-states, Venice, and Croatia, while under nominal byzantine suzerainty, acknowledged the administration of the Latin Pope over the local church, with the consent of the Emperors. However, while the Croatian-held branch of the Catholic Church with its seat in Nin was under Papal jurisdiction, it used Slavic liturgy, the Croatian population preferred domestic priests, who were married, bearded, and held masses in Croatian. The city-states and the Holy See, on the other hand, used Latin liturgy. After the East-West Schism of 1054, the Papal influence in Dalmatia was increased and Byzantine practices were further suppressed on the general synods of 1059–1060, 1066, 1075–1076 and on other local synods, notably by demoting the bishopric of Nin, installing the archbishopric of Spalatum (Split) and archbishopric of Dioclea (Montenegro), which explicitly forbade the use of any liturgy other than Latin or Greek.

At the beginning of the High Medieval period, having just achieved a crushing victory in the Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars, the Empire was capable of controlling the area (Croatia, the city-states, Venice) to a significant extent. However, with the rising Norman threat in southern Italy and the East-West Schism, the Battle of Manzikert finally left it powerless to maintain its power in the far west. Croatia was slipping away from Byzantine rule: King Demetrius Zvonimir rose to the throne with Papal blessing after aiding the Normans in their war against Byzantium. After his death, however, the Kingdom found itself in a struggle for independence against King Coloman of Hungary who laid claim to the throne. In 1102 Coloman forced the Croatian feudal lords to enter into a personal union with Hungary with the Pacta conventa. Hungary extended its influence to the Dalmatian coast. Venice during this time forced the Dalmatian city-states into submission, but in 1105 Coloman forced the Venetians to abandon Dalmatia granting the cities the autonomy of "Free Royal Cities" within his feudal realm (which now included both Hungary and Croatia). Based on economic reasons, both Venice and Hungary had support within the Dalmatian city states. The farmers and the merchants who traded in the interior favored Hungary as their most powerful neighbor on land that affirmed their municipal privileges, while the cities feared Venetian suppression of their trade and economy.

Byzantine Empire in purple, c. 1180, at the end of the Komnenian period. In 1167 Manuel I Komnenos briefly restored the Empire's de facto rule over most of Dalmatia (1168-1180).
Byzantine Empire in purple, c. 1180, at the end of the Komnenian period. In 1167 Manuel I Komnenos briefly restored the Empire's de facto rule over most of Dalmatia (1168-1180).

Subject only to the Royal Assent the cities enjoyed the right to elect their own chief magistrate, bishop, and judges. Their ancient Roman law remained valid, and they were even permitted to conclude separate alliances. No alien, not even a Hungarian, could reside in a city if he was unwelcome, while any man who disliked Hungarian suzerainty could emigrate with all his household and property. In lieu of tribute, the revenue from customs was in most cases shared equally by the king, chief magistrate, bishop and the municipality. On the other hand, the rights and analogous privileges granted by Venice were, however, too frequently infringed. While Hungarian garrisons were being quartered on unwilling towns, Venice interfered with trade, the appointment of bishops, or the tenure of communal domains. Consequently the Dalmatians remained loyal only while it suited their interests, and insurrections frequently occurred. In Iadera (Zadar) alone, four separate rebellions are recorded between 1180 and 1345, although the city was treated with special consideration by its Venetian masters, who regarded its possession as essential to their maritime ascendancy. The doubtful allegiance of the Dalmatian cities tended to protract the struggle between Venice and Hungary, which was further complicated by internal discord due largely to the spread of the Bogomil heresy, and by many outside influences.

Dalmatia was, however, once again to be returned to Imperial Byzantine rule, as the Empire regained some of its former strength during the Komnenian restoration. Emperor Manuel I the Great of the Komnenian dinasty invaded and defeated the Kingdom of Hungary at the Battle of Sirmium in 1167. By 1168 nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel's hands.[11] After his death in 1180, however, and the subsequent coup d'état against his son, Byzantium's influence once again withdrew from the area. Hungary/Croatia also lost its grip on the cities at this time, and they found themselves increasingly under Venetian influence, but King Béla III reasserted his power in Dalmatia.
This was to change after the King's his death. In 1202, the armies of the Fourth Crusade were forced, due to the Crusades financial difficulties, to render assistance to Venice by taking the city of Zadar for the republic. In 1204 the same crusader army was ironically persuaded by Doge Enrico Dandolo to treacherously attack the Christian capital of Constantinople, finally eliminating the Byzantine Empire from the list of contenders on Dalmatian territory.

Mongol invasion of Hungary, 1241.
Mongol invasion of Hungary, 1241.

Hungary and Venice were now intermittently controlling Dalmatia. The cities of Spalatum, Iadera, Tragurium and Ragusa with the surrounding territories each changed hands several times between Venice and Hungary during the early 13th century. However, this period was marked by a decline in external hostilities as the Dalmatian cities started accepting de facto foreign sovereignty, having been mainly independent for nearly 700 years. The exception was the southernmost city of Ragusa, then known by its Slavic inhabitants as Dubrovnik (its modern name). Even more isolated by land than the other cities, Ragusa established its own Republic which quickly began to develop a specific culture. Its geographically isolated position in the uttermost south of Dalmatia meant that the Republic of Ragusa exhibited a strong ethnic mix of Romance Dalmatians and Slavic Croat Dalmatians. By the 13th century, the councilmen in the Republic's council were mixed, and in the 15th century the ragusan literature was written in the Slavic language (from which Croatian language is directly descended), while the city was often called by its Slavic name, Dubrovnik. This state, though often recognizing the suzerainty of foreign powers, kept its de facto independence all the way up to the Napoleonic era, when it was abolished by the French.

A consistent period of Hungarian rule in Dalmatia was ended with the Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1241. The Mongols severely impaired the feudal state, so much so that that same year, King Béla IV had to take refuge in Dalmatia, as far south as the Klis fortress. The Mongols attacked the Dalmatian cities for the next few years but eventually withdrew without major success, as the mountainous terrain and distance were not suitable for Mongol warfare. Soon afterwards, the Venetians once again took advantage of temporary Hungarian weakness to once again take control of Dalmatia.

[edit] Late Middle Ages (AD 1300-1420)

In 1346, Dalmatia was struck by the Black Death. The economic situation was also poor, and the cities became more and more dependent on Venice. However, having thoroughly recovered from the Mongol invasion, Hungary began restoring its influence. In the same year (1346), King Louis I the Great of Hungary and Croatia began a military campaign to expel the Venetians from Dalmatia. He was defeated at Zadar, though, and was compelled to withdraw. Thirteen years later, in 1357, the King waged a new war against Venice for the rule of Dalmatia. After successfully organizing an anti-Venetian league, Louis defeated the Venetian Republic expelling all Venetians from Dalmatia. By the Treaty of Zadar (1358), all Louis' demands in the region were recognized. Having won the land war, he immediately formed an Adriatic fleet.

After King Louis' death in 1382, Hungary was once again weakened by internal struggles. In 1389 Tvrtko I, the founder of the Bosnian Kingdom, was able to control the Adriatic littoral between Kotor and Šibenik, and even claimed control over the northern coast up to Rijeka, and his own independent ally, Dubrovnik (Ragusa). This was only temporary, as Hungary and the Venetians continued their struggle over Dalmatia after Tvrtko's death in 1391. By this time Hungary was facing increasing internal difficulties, as a 20-year civil war ensued between the Capetian House of Anjou from the Kingdom of Naples, and King Sigismund of the House of Luxembourg. During the war, the Neapolitan fleet arrived in Dalmatia and was welcomed by all cities except Ragusa (Dubrovnik), which was by this time an independent merchant republic. The Anjou contender, Ladislaus of Naples, remained in control of Dalmatia throughout the conflict. However, Ladislaus was eventually defeated and forced to sail away for Naples, on his departure he sold his "rights" on Dalmatia to the Venetian Republic for a relatively meager sum of 100,000 ducats. The much more centralized Republic took over the city-states by the year 1420, it was to remain under Venetian rule for 377 years (1420 - 1797). The city of Omiš was the last to yield to Venice in 1444, while only the Republic of Ragusa preserved its independence.[12]

[edit] Early modern period (1420-1797)

The Venetian Republic and the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) around 1560.
The Venetian Republic and the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) around 1560.
See also: Republic of Ragusa and Hvar Rebellion

During the Venetian rule in Dalmatia from 1420 to 1797 the number of Orthodox Serbs in Dalmatia was increased by numerous migrations

An interval of peace ensued, but meanwhile the Ottoman advance continued.

Hungary was itself assailed by the Turks, and could no longer afford to try to control Dalmatia. Christian kingdoms and regions in the east fell one by one, Constantinople in 1453, Serbia in 1459, neighbouring Bosnia in 1463, and Herzegovina in 1483. Thus the Venetian and Ottoman frontiers met and border wars were incessant.

Dubrovnik sought safety in friendship with the invaders, and in one particular instance, actually sold two small strips of its territory (Neum and Sutorina) to the Ottomans in order to prevent land access from the Venetian territory.

In 1508 the hostile League of Cambrai compelled Venice to withdraw its garrison for home service, and after the overthrow of Hungary in 1526 the Turks were able easily to conquer the greater part of Dalmatia by 1537. The peace of 1540 left only the maritime cities to Venice, the interior forming a Turkish province, governed from the fortress of Klis by a Sanjak beg (an administrator with military powers).

Christian Croats from the neighbouring lands now thronged to the towns, outnumbering the Romanic population even more, and making their language the primary one. The pirate community of the "uskoks" had originally been a band of these fugitives, esp. near Senia; its exploits contributed to a renewal of war between Venice and Turkey (1571-1573). An extremely curious picture of contemporary manners is presented by the Venetian agents, whose reports on this war resemble some knightly chronicle of the Middle Ages, full of single combats, tournaments and other chivalrous adventures. They also show clearly that the Dalmatian levies far surpassed the Italian mercenaries in skill and courage. Many of these troops served abroad; at the Battle of Lepanto, for example, in 1571, a Dalmatian squadron assisted the allied fleets of Spain, Venice, Austria and the Papal States to crush the Turkish navy.

The continental bits of Dalmatia were under Ottoman rule, parts of the Viyalet of Bosnia or the Klis Sanjak. The desolated areas of the Knin Frontier and Bukovica were inhabited by Orthodox Serbs from Bosnia, while Boka received constant Serb migrations from Herzegovina and Montenegro. The Serbs formed one quarter of Dalmatia's population in the 16th century. They had absolute majority in the Knin Frontier, Bukovica and Boka. The Ottomans have resettled this populace to create a living defence towards the territories of the Venetian Republic. A great portion of this population fled to Venetian land and gladly fought against the Ottomans. The number of Serbs in Venetian Dalmatia rapidly increased during the War of Crete in 1645–1669 and the Great Viennese War war in 1683–1699, after which peace of Karlowitz gave the whole of Dalmatia to Ston and from Sutorina to Boka kotorska to the Venetian Republic. After the Venetian-Turkish war of 1714–1718, Venetian territorial gains were confirmed by the 1718 Treaty of Passarowitz. The number of Dalmatian Serbs remained between 20% and 25% by the end of Venetian rule.

The Serbian peasant population of infertile Upper Dalmatia was freed of Feudal bounds, according that they fight wars for the Venetian Republic. The Serbs living in Urban cities of Dalmatia were much wealthier. The Serbs in Dalmatia with Boka have had strong national and religious determination through numerous old monasteries as beacons of culture and faith. Such were the early 14th century Krupa, Krka and Dragović monasteries in the Knin Frontier and Bukovica. The Serbs in Boka kotorska had much more cultural advancement due to the nearby Cetinje Metropolitan and the Venetians had to fall back from influencing the religious life of people there.

Dalmatia was the largest Europe's concentration of Roman Catholic Christian Bishops, Priesthood, Churches, Monasteries and religious institutions. The Catholic Bishops controlled the Orthodox Episcopy in Dalmatia by naming the Eastern Othodox Christian Episcopes themselves.

Dalmatia experienced a period of intense economic and cultural growth in the 18th century, given how trade routes with the hinterland were reestablished in peace. Christians that noticeably migrated from the Ottoman-held territory into the Dalmatian cities converted from Orthodoxy to Catholicism.

Because the Venetians were able to reclaim some of the inland territories in the north during the Turkish wars, the region of Dalmatia was no longer restricted to the coastline and the islands. However, the Venetian influence wasn't as strong in the former southern Dalmatia, meaning that the toponym did not extend inland into areas of Herzegovina or Montenegro.

This period was abruptly interrupted with the fall of the Venetian republic in 1797.

[edit] 19th Century

[edit] Napoleonic period

Republic of Ragusa before 1808
Republic of Ragusa before 1808
Dalmatia as a part of the Illyrian Provinces in 1811
Dalmatia as a part of the Illyrian Provinces in 1811

Later in 1797, in the treaty of Campo Formio, Napoleon gave Dalmatia to Austria in return for Belgium. The republics of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and Poljica retained their independence, and Ragusa grew rich by its neutrality during the earlier Napoleonic wars.

By the peace of Pressburg in 1805, Istria, Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor were handed over to France.

In 1805 Napoleon created his Kingdom of Italy around the Adriatic sea, annexing to it the former venetian Dalmatia from Istria to Cattaro (Kotor). In 1809 he removed the venetian Dalmatia from his Kingdom of Italy and created the Illyrian Provinces, that were annexed to France.

In 1806, the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) finally succumbed to foreign (French) troops under general Marmont, the same year a Montenegrin force supported by the Russians tried to contest the French by seizing Boka Kotorska. The allied forces have pushed the French to Ragusa. The Russians induced the Montenegrins to render aid and they proceeded to take the islands of Korčula and Brač but made no further progress, and withdrew in 1807 under the treaty of Tilsit. The Republic of Ragusa was officially annexed to the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy in 1808.

The major part of the Dalmatian population was Roman Catholic Christian.

In 1809, war again broke out between France and Austria. In the summer, Austrian forces retook Dalmatia, but this lasted only until the Treaty of Schönbrunn in the autumn of the same year. Austria-Hungary declared war on France in 1813, restored control over Dalmatia by 1815 and formed a temporary Kingdom of Illyria. In 1822, this was eliminated and Dalmatia was placed under Austrian administration.

[edit] Austrian Empire

Dalmatia within Austria-Hungary
Dalmatia within Austria-Hungary

During the period of the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Dalmatia was a separate administrative unit of the Empire. Since 1867, the Empire was fundamentally reorganised into the a dual monarchic union of the Austrian and the Hungarian lands, while the country was renamed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
While retaining exceptionally significant autonomy, the Kingdom of Croatia was assigned to the Hungarian part of the Empire, while Dalmatia remained in the Austrian (mostly for naval strategic reasons). The Croats in Dalmatia resented this as it permanently forbade the union of all Croatian lands.

After the revolutions of 1848 and particularly since the 1860s, in the age of romantic nationalism, two factions appeared.
The first was the pro-Croatian or Unionist faction (later also known as the "Puntari"), led by the People's Party (Narodna Stranka) and, to a lesser extent, the Party of Rights (Stranka Prava), which advocated the union of Dalmatia with the remaining parts of Croatia which were under Hungarian overall administration.
The second was the pro-Italian Autonomist faction (also called the "Irredentist" faction), the political goals of which varied from autonomy within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to a political union with Italy.
The 1880 Austrian census gives the following data for Dalmatia: 371,565 Croats, 78,714 Serbs and 27,305 Italians.

The Unionist faction won the elections in Dalmatia in 1870, but they were prevented from following through with the merger with the rest of Croatia due to the intevention of the Austrian imperial government, which dreaded the loss of precious coastline territories to the Hungarians.

Kingdom of Dalmatia within and the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia
Kingdom of Dalmatia within and the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia

The political alliances in Dalmatia shifted over time. At the beginning, the unionists and autonomists were allied together, against centralism of Vienna. After a while, when the national question came to prominence, they split. A third splintering happened when the local Orthodox population, few of whom were nationally conscious Serbs, heard of the ideas of unification of all Serbs through of the Serbian Orthodox Church, which acted as Serbia's agit-prop agency abroad. As a result, Serbian Orthodox population started to side with the autonomists and irredentists rather than the unionists.

[edit] 20th century

[edit] Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918-1941)

In World War I, Austria-Hungary was defeated and it disintegrated, which helped solve the internal political conflict in Dalmatia.

Following the conclusion of World War I and the disintegration of Austria-Hungary, the vast majority of Dalmatia became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia).
During the war, the Kingdom of Italy turned on its pre-war Triple Alliance allies, the German Empire and Austro-Hungary, due to the many guarantees of territorial gains made by the Entente in the 1915 secret London Pact, which included a large part of Dalmatia and (especially) the port of Zadar (Zara). However, the pact was nullified in the Treaty of Saint Germain due to the objections of American president Woodrow Wilson and the Slavic delegates. In Dalmatia Italy received the city of Zara (Zadar), as well as the islands of Krk (Cherso), Lošinj (Lussino) and Lastovo (Làgosta).

When the Croatian Banate was in 1939 formed, the biggest part of Dalmatia was in it.

[edit] World War II (1941-1945)

In April 1941, during World War II, Nazi Germany invaded and conquered Yugoslavia. A month later, large sections of Dalmatia were annexed by the Kingdom of Italy (in the Governatorato di Dalmazia), the rest being formally left to the Independent State of Croatia, but in reality occupied by Italian forces which later supported Chetniks in Serb-populated areas. Many Croats from Dalmatia joined the resistance movement led by Tito's Partisans, while others joined the fascist Croatia of Ante Pavelić. The result was a terrible guerrilla war that ravaged all Dalmatia.

In September 1943, following the capitulation of Italy, large sections of Dalmatia were temporarily controlled by Partisans, only to be reoccupied, this time by the German Wehrmacht. In later stages of the war, many Dalmatian Croats went in exile, in fear from Third Reich's vindictive actions, especially after strong rumours that a second front would be formed and that there would be an invasion on the Croatian coast. In the second of half of 1944, Partisans, supplied by the Allies, finally took control of all Dalmatia. The Italian population of Dalmatia, concentrated in Zadar, suffered civilian losses due to allies bombardments in 1944.

[edit] SFR Yugoslavia (1945-1991)

After 1945, most of the remaining Italians fled the region. They were treated as remnants of the occupation force and were given an option to leave for Italy. Some died in the so-called foibe massacres, although this was more common in Istria and elsewhere than in Dalmatia. The "disappearance" of the Italian speaking populations in Dalmatia was nearly complete after World War II. The linguist Matteo Bartoli calculated that the Italians were 33% of the Dalmatian population during the Napoleonic wars, while currently there are only 300 Italians in Croatian Dalmatia and 500 Italians in coastal Montenegro.

Dalmatia was divided between three republics of socialist Yugoslavia - almost all of the territory went to Croatia, leaving Cattaro Bay of Kotor to Montenegro and a small strip of coast at Neum to Bosnia-Herzegovina.

[edit] Yugoslav Wars (1991-1995)

For a complete account of the civil war in Dalmatia, see the Yugoslav wars, Croatian War of Independence, and Battle of Dalmatia articles.

Following the collapse of SFR Yugoslavia in the 1990s the states of Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina became independent, and in 2006 the new state of Montenegro declared independence as well. Today's Dalmatia is, thus, divided politically between these three independent countries.

In 1991, when Yugoslavia began to disintegrate, Croatia declared independence. The Homeland war (Domovinski rat) affected sections of northern Dalmatia, where there lived a significant population of Serbs. They rebelled, under encouragement and with assistance from a variety of Serbian nationalist circles, and seceded into the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK). The center of the RSK was in the northern Dalmatian town of Knin.

The establishment of the RSK was helped by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), as well as paramilitary troops that came from Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. The Serbian forces had a prevalence in equipment and munitions because of JNA support, and they proceeded to commit various acts of terrorism, including shelling attacks on civilian targets.

The Yugoslav People's Army operated from their barracks, that were mostly positioned in bigger cities and stategically important points. In some bigger cities JNA had built large residential blocs, and in the opening stages of the war it was believed that those buildings will be used by sharpshooters or for reconnaisanse purposes. This widespread belief, although justified in few cases, served mostly as an excuse for various Croatian paramilitary and vigilante groups to forcibly evict members of JNA families from their homes, rob their property and sometimes even subject them to torture, rape and murder.

First attempts to take over JNA facilities occurred in August in Sinj and failed, but the major action took place in September 1991. Croatian Army and police were then more successful, although most of the objects taken were repair shops, warehouses and similar facilities, either poorly defended or commanded by officers sympathetic to Croatian cause. Major bases, commanded by die-hard officers and manned by reservists from Montenegro and Serbia, became the object of standoffs that usually ended with JNA personnel and equipment being evacuated under supervision of EEC observers. This process was completed shortly after Sarajevo armistice in January 1992.

All non-Serb population was ethnically cleansed from controlled areas, notably the villages of Škabrnja (Škabrnja massacre) and Kijevo. Croatian refugees, tens of thousands of them, found shelter in many of the Dalmatian coastal towns where they were placed in empty tourist facilities.

In 1991, the Dalmatian anti-Serb riots of May 1991 happened, in which up to 350 Serb housing, most notably in Zadar and Trogir was destroyed by angry Croatian civilians.

By early 1992, the military positions were mostly entrenched, and further expansion of the RSK was stopped. The Serbian forces continued terrorist actions by way of random shelling of Croatian cities, and this continued occasionally over the next four years.

Besides the northern hinterland that bordered with Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Yugoslav People's Army also occupied sections of southern Dalmatia around Dubrovnik, as well as the islands of Vis and Lastovo. These lasted until 1992.

The United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was deployed throughout the UNPA zones, including those in northern Dalmatia, as well as on Prevlaka.

The Croatian government gradually restored control over all of Dalmatia, in the following military operations:

  • September 1991: September War - successful defence of Šibenik from JNA onslaught and takeover of JNA bases in the area.
  • May and July 1992: Operation Tigar, JNA was forced to retreat from Vis, Lastovo, Mljet and areas around Dubrovnik.
  • July 1992: Miljevci Heights in Šibenik hinterland, near Drniš, were liberated
  • January 1993: Operation Maslenica, Croatian forces liberated Zadar and Biograd hinterland.
  • In August 1995 Croatian forces conducted Operation Storm, ending Krajina and restoring Croatian sovereignty to international recognised borders.

During Operation Storm majority of Serb population from Krajina has left their homes, while minority of those who stayed - mostly elderly people - were occasionally subjected to acts of murder. Homes left by ethnic Serbs were taken over by ethnic Croatian refugees from Bosnia-Herzegovina with the help and encouragement of Croatian authorities. Through the past decade, number of ethnic Serb refugees have returned and gradually reverted demographic results of war in certain areas, although it is very unlikely that their proportion in region's population will ever reach pre-war level.

[edit] Republic of Croatia (1995 on)

Dalmatia has arguably suffered in war more than other Croatian regions, with its infrastructure ruined, while tourism industry - previously the most important source of income - was deeply affected by negative publicity and didn't properly recover until late 1990s. Dalmatian population in general suffered dramatic drop in living standard which created chasm between Dalmatia and relatively more prosperous northern sections of Croatia. This chasm reflected in extreme nationalism enjoying visibly higher levels of support in Dalmatia than in the rest of Croatia, which embraced more moderate course.

This phenomenon manifested not only in Dalmatia being reliable stronghold for HDZ and other Croatian right-wing parties, but also in mass protests against Croatian Army generals being prosecuted for alleged war crimes. Indictment and against General Mirko Norac in early 2001 drew 150,000 people to the streets of Split - which is arguably the largest protest in the history of modern Croatia.

[edit] References

  1. ^ S.Čače, Ime Dalmacije u 2. i 1. st. prije Krista, Radovi Filozofskog fakulteta u Zadru, godište 40 za 2001. Zadar, 2003, pages 29,45.
  2. ^ Charles George Herbermann, The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference (1913)
  3. ^ M.Zaninović, Ilirsko pleme Delmati, pages 58, 83-84.
  4. ^ D. Mandić, Crvena Hrvatska, pages 68-83
  5. ^ J.Medini, Provincia Liburnia, Diadora, vol. 9, Zadar, 1980, page 433
  6. ^ C. Michael Hogan, "Diocletian's Palace", The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham, Oct 6, 2007
  7. ^ Other Dalmatian cities at the time were: Tarsatica, Senia, Vegium, Aenona,Iader,Scardona,Tragurium, Aequum,Oneum,Issa, Pharus, Bona,Corcyra Nigra,Narona, Epidaurus, Rhizinium, Acruvium, Olcinium, Scodra, Epidamnus/Dyrrachium
  8. ^ A. Stipčević, Iliri, Školska knjiga Zagreb, 1974, page 70
  9. ^ I.Mužić, Hrvatska povijest devetoga stoljeća, Naklada Bošković, Split 2006
  10. ^ History of Dalmatia: 614 to 802 AD
  11. ^ Sedlar (1994), 372
  12. ^ http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/balkans/croat13011526.html History: 1301 to 1526 AD
  • RSK, Vrhovni savjet odbrane, Knin, 4. avgust 1995., 16.45 časova, Broj 2-3113-1/95. The faximile of this document was published in: Rade Bulat "Srbi nepoželjni u Hrvatskoj", Naš glas (Zagreb), br. 8.-9., septembar 1995., p. 90.-96. (the faximile is on the page 93.).

Vrhovni savjet odbrane RSK (The Supreme Council of Defense of Republic of Serb Krajina) brought a decision 4. August 1995 in 16.45. This decision was signed by Milan Martić and later verified in Glavni štab SVK (Headquarters of Republic of Serb Krajina Army) in 17.20.

  • RSK, Republički štab Civilne zaštite, Broj: Pov. 01-82/95., Knin, 02.08.1995., HDA, Dokumentacija RSK, kut. 265

This is the document of Republic headquarters of Civil Protection of RSK. In this document it was ordered to all subordinated headquarters of RSK to immediately give all reports about preparations for the evacuation, sheltering and taking care of evacuated civilians ("evakuacija, sklanjanje i zbrinjavanje") (the deadline for the report was 3. August 1995 in 19 h).

  • RSK, Republički štab Civilne zaštite, Broj: Pov. 01-83/95., Knin, 02.08.1995., Pripreme za evakuaciju materijalnih, kulturnih i drugih dobara (The preparations for the evacuation of material, cultural and other goods), HDA, Dokumentacija RSK, kut. 265

This was the next order from the Republican HQ of Civil Protection. It was referred to all Municipal Headquarters of Civil Protection. In that document was ordered to all subordinated HQ's to implement the preparation of evacuation of all material and all mobile cultural goods, archives, evidentions and materials that are highly confidential/top secret, money, lists of valuable stuff (?) ("vrednosni popisi") and referring documentations.

  • Drago Kovačević, "Kavez - Krajina u dogovorenom ratu" , Beograd 2003., p. 93.-94.
  • Milisav Sekulić, "Knin je pao u Beogradu" , Bad Vilbel 2001., p. 171.-246., p. 179.
  • Marko Vrcelj, "Rat za Srpsku Krajinu 1991-95" , Beograd 2002., p. 212.-222.

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