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Contents 1 Submarine indicator loop 1.1 Fixed Harbour Defense 1.2 What are Indicator Loops? 1.3 What are Indicator Loops and how do they work? 1.4 Anti-submarine detection systems 2 Operating a loop in practice 3 The cable 3.1 Recovery of copper and silver 4 History 4.1 Research 4.2 WWI 4.3 WWII 5 Places where indicator loops were installed 5.1 Britain and the British Commonwealth 5.2 United States 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links 10 Surveying the coast 11 Land wars 11.1 The Royal Navy 11.2 The first gunboat 11.3 Australia helps 11.4 The Waikato Flotilla 12 Notes

[edit] Submarine indicator loop

Submarine indicator loops were part of the fixed harbour defences used in the first and second world wars against submarines.

They consisted of a loop of cable laid on the sea floor. They were connected to an indicator in a shore monitoring station. If a large metal object, such as a ship or a submarine, passed overhead, it would induce an electric current which would alert the shore monitoring station.

[edit] Fixed Harbour Defense

There are five fixed defenses used in detecting a submarine attempting to enter a harbor:

• The indicator loop
• The controlled mine loop
• The harbor defense listening gear
• The indicator net
• Supersonic set for boom gate vessels

The indicator loop is a warning device, but the controlled mine loop provides a lethal weapon as well as a warning device. Both are operated by magnetic influence. They will probably be de-energized while channel is being swept by magnetic sweeps as the magnetic sweeps interfere with the detector instruments. Harbor defense listening gear consists of sensitive elements mounted on the sea bottom and controlled from the shore. Indicator nets offer no definite obstacle, but give visual notice of the presence of submarines. Supersonic sets for the boom gate vessels are for the purpose of preventing an entry into a protected harbor when it is opened for the entry of friendly ships.^[1]

Apart from normal harbour defences such as guns and searchlights, fixed anti-submarine defences included indicator loops which gave an indication that a vessel had passed over a predetermined line; harbour defence asdics which required skilled operation; controlled mines which were exploded by a shore operator as a submarine crossed the line; and anti-submarine booms. All these required large quantities of expensive material and, with the possible exception of the asdics, could be installed only from specially equipped vessels.^[2]

[edit] What are Indicator Loops?

Inductive loop detection An induction loop is a simple coil wire transceiver. One use of an induction loop is in 'inductive loop detection' where the coil is used to detect metal objects. Applications for this include vehicle detection, metal detectors, etc. The principle of operation is a changing inductance which changes the frequency of an oscillator of which the inductive loop forms a part.

An anti-submarine indicator loop was also a device used to detect submarine and surface vessels using submarine cables connected to an indicator. A 'submarine communications cable' is a cable laid beneath the sea to carry telecommunications between countries. Indicator Loops are different to Controlled Mining Loops, Guard Loops, Indicator Nets, Harbour Defence Asdic (HDA) Loops, Boom gates and Boom Cables, all of which are used in harbour defence.^[3]

Submarines may be detected by many methods but one highly secret method of the past that relied on magnetic properties of submarines and surface vessels is the anti-submarine indicator loop. It relies on the production of an induced current in a stationery loop of wire when a magnet (in this case, a submarine) moves overhead. Even if wiped or degaussed, submarines still have sufficient magnetism to produce a small current in a loop. The technology was developed by the British Royal Navy in 1915. It was sent to various Commonwealth countries (Australia, Canada, New Zealand) for deployment. With the close technical co-operation between the Royal Navy and the US Navy, the indicator loop technology was enhanced for use in the US from about 1942 onwards. ^[4]

Geophysical MASINT#Indicating Loops for detecting Submarines

[edit] What are Indicator Loops and how do they work?

This page gives a very brief overview of the once top-secret anti-submarine harbour defence technology known as "Indicator Loops".^[5]

[edit] Anti-submarine detection systems

Numerous methods of locating submarines have been developed over the years. As well as time-honoured visual sightings, they include: radar (surface), ASDIC or sonar (underwater), electromagnetic radiation emissions, heat sensing, exhaust analysis, sea lions, pelicans and importantly, in the context of this article, magnetic sensing.^[6]

One method relying on magnetic properties is the anti-submarine indicator loop. It relies on the production of an induced current in a stationery loop of wire when a magnet (in this case, a submarine) moves overhead. Even if wiped or degaussed, submarines still have sufficient magnetism to produce a small current in a loop. The technology was developed by the British Royal Navy at HMS Osprey (Portland Naval Base) starting back in 1915. It was sent to various Commonwealth countries for deployment. For example, all of the loop materials used in Australia were of British origin ("Admiralty Pattern") although Australian-made equipment became available from about 1942 onwards. There was a great spirit of cooperation during the war. The RAN operated as part of the RN and there was a continuous exchange of officers as well as unhindered access to RN and USN technology. In the USA, the indicator loops were known as 'loop receiving stations'.^[7]

[edit] Operating a loop in practice

If an indicator loop indicated the presence of a vessel, the two possibilities were "sub" or "non-sub". If no surface ship were sighted usually a ship would be sent to drop depth charges. It had to be an enemy submarine because friendly submarines always entered port surfaced. In several cases, the loops were positioned beside controlled or 'set' minefields in which the mines were connected by electrical cable back to a mine control hut on shore and the mines could be detonated manually.^[8]

[edit] The cable

A submarine loop is made of a lead-sheathed single core (Admiralty Pattern No. 1989). This is the cable that actually detected the crossings. No photos or samples are available anywhere in the world, though a detailed diagram is shown here.

For a more detailed account of how indicator loops work, see though a detailed diagram is shown here. .

It consists of a single core of 7 strands of 0.029" tinned copper wire covered with three layers of india rubber then a layer of waterproof tape and wound with jute yarn. This is then covered with hessian tape and spirally wound with a soft lead alloy wire. The lead is covered with more waterproof tape, a tarred jute serving, two more layers of hessian tape, 22 steel armour wires (each about 2 mm diameter) covered in lead. Then there is a braiding of dressed hemp yarn wrapped over hot pitch and resin, and finally a preservative coating. Final diameter (1.3") 33 mm. It weighed 6.09 tons per 2000 yard mile in air (6.8 lb per yard). The cost in 1938 was �180 per 1000 yards. ^[9] In some harbours the Royal Navy used ADM Pattern 13142, a 7-core lead-loaded cable. The electrical resistance was 6 ohms/km.^[10]

[edit] Recovery of copper and silver

Today, more than 50 years after the war, many of the countries that still have US Navy loop cables are having them removed for a variety of reasons. One is that many ports are expanding or having their harbors dredged deeper to accommodate today�s larger ships. The cables are an obstacle to dredging operations and a potential hazard for ships anchoring. The other reason is their enormous scrap value. Most of the cables were constructed of copper, but with copper in such short supply during the war years, some were actually made of silver with the intent of reclaiming them after the war. However, very little salvage was ever done. Consortiums of private investors and government officials are now being formed to locate and remove these cables. (One of the companies performing this service is Resolve Marine Group in Port Everglades, FL. Resolve has been providing a variety of marine services to companies and government agencies in the U.S., Central and South America, and throughout the Caribbean for the past 20 years). ^[11]

Need large quantities of netting, caling, ASDIC and other harbour defence equipment as well as guns to coastal batteries. In many cases need specialized ships, cable layers, minelayers, boom gate operation, to maintain the defences.

Port fixed defences have never has a high public profile. During wartime, they were subject to security considerations, and if possible, were to be kept altogethersecret.

Thus, indicator loop, laid along the sea floor, were as faras possible kept secret. Even after the war, there was no reason to disclose details about them, and people were busy reconstructing their lives and not interested anyway.

[edit] History

[edit] Research

Developed in part by Sir John Cunningham McLennan, John Cunningham McLennan

Alexander Crichton Mitchell, developer of an anti-submarine device called `indicator loops'

• Alexander Crichton Mitchell

[edit] WWI

By early 1917 the Royal Navy had also developed indicator loops which consisted of long lengths of cables lain on the seabed to detect the magnetic field of submarines as they passed overhead. At this stage they were used in conjunction with controlled mines which could be detonated from a shore station once a 'swing' had been detected on the indicator loop galvanometer. Indicator loops used with controlled mining were known as 'guard loops'.

The first recorded use of indicator loops was at Scapa Flow, in the Orkney Islands at the northern tip of Scotland. Here the Royal Navy stationed its Grand Fleet and on 28th October 1918, German U-Boat UB-116 was destroyed in the controlled minefield at Hoxa Sound with the loss of 34 crew. In his book From The Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, historian Arthur Marder wrote: UB-116 was blown up in one of the loop minefields which were the inner defence. These were lines of mines, each surrounded by an electrical indicating loop. When the observer noticed the tell-tale needle of a loop deflected and saw that there was no surface ship there, he pressed the button and the line of mines went up. The Royal Navy had fortuitously installed these antisubmarine measures in December 1914, not long after the declaration of war with Germany.^[12]

[edit] WWII

[edit] Places where indicator loops were installed

• Scarpa
• England: Straits of Dover, Portsmouth, Portland, Plymouth, Falmouth,
• Scotland: Firth of Forth, Loch Long, Oban Bay, Rosyth and Cumbrae
• Ireland: Berehaven, Queenstown, St George's Channel, North Channel
• Other Royal Navy ports: Hong Kong, Singapore, Penang, Alexandria, Malta
• Australia:Sydney, Darwin, Fremantle, Broken Bay, Newcastle, Bribie Island, Brisbane River, Port Moresby (protectorate)
• New Zealand: Auckland Harbour
• Canada:Saint John, Digby and Prince Rupert
• United States: The USN set up 'loop receiving stations' mostly in the Casco Bay area near Boston on the East Coast:^[13]

[edit] Britain and the British Commonwealth

[edit] United States

The indicator loop technology was enhanced for use in the US from about 1942 onwards. In the US, the control stations were known as 'loop receiving stations' and were a part of the Harbor Entrance Control Post (HECP). The first loop installation in the US was made at Cape Henry, Virginia in summer 1941. Units (loops, hydrophones, heralds) were installed in practically every major and medium conential US harbor in the few months after August 1942 and by the end of 1942 were being shipped to the South Pacific. Underwater detection was installed in major and medium ports along the east and west coast of the US, the Aleutians, South Pacific, Central Pacific, France, Philipines, the Canal Zone (Bahia de Panama), Australia and South America. At the time of surrender, several units were ready in California to be shipped to Japan.^[14]

[edit] See also

• Anti-submarine warfare
• Sonar
• [[]]
• [[]]
• [[]]

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• Marder, Arthur (1965) From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow. Volume II. Oxford University Press ASIN: B000YIX6TK
• Franklin, George D (2003) Britain's Anti-Submarine Capability, 1919-1939

Page 66. Routledge. ISBN 9780714653181

Extracts from Walding, Richard. Indicator Loops, Moreton Bay College, Wynnum, Queensland).

[edit] External links

• submarine indicator loops in NZ
• submarine indicator loops around the world
• submarine indicator loops Oban Bay
• Induction loop
• Oban
• Royal Navy Oban Anti Submarine Indicator Loop site
• Forth anti-submarine/anti-torpedo boom defences
• Guns of Fort Bribie
• Bribie Island, Queensland
• Undicator loops and the attack against Sydney
• NZ Anti-Submarine Policy
• Australia at war

• []
• []
• []
• []

[edit] Surveying the coast

The first general charting of the New Zealand coast was done by Cook on his first visit in 1769. The chart was published in 1772 and remained current for 66 years.^[1]

By 1840 several Royal Navy ships were engaged in hydrographic surveys directed by the Admiralty. In 1840 Captain Owen Stanley, on HMS Britomart, drew up an Admiralty chart of the Waitemata.^[2] The Britomart was a Cherokee class brig-sloop of the Royal Navy. In this survey, he named Britomart Point after his ship, and what he named simply as Second Point is today called Stanley Point.^[3]

Stanley's chart of Akaroa

In 1841 Auckland was chosen as the capital of New Zealand. Its status as the capital, together with its natural physical amenities, undoubtedly helped the city grow in trade, shipping, population and commercial influence, and added to its importance as a major city.

Information provided by the Royal New Zealand Navy Museum. Fort Britomart

Fort Britomart was established during the 1840s and 1850s on Point Britomart, to bring order to the growing city.

A detailed survey of the New Zealand coast was essential for economic development and in 1848 HMS Acheron, a steam paddle sloop, began the "Great Survey". HMS Pandora took over and continued until 1856, when the harbours and most of the coast had been freshly surveyed. In the 1890s until 1905, HMS Penguin updated the surveys.^[4]

[edit] Land wars

From 1840 immigration, mainly from the United Kingdom, increased markedly. New Zealand became a colony in its own right on 3 May 1841 and the New Zealand Constitution Act of 1852 established central and provincial governments.

As more Pākehā arrived the pressure on Māori to sell land increased. Māori initially had welcomed Pākehā for the trading opportunities, but it soon became clear that they were being overwhelmed. The Iwi (tribes) were losing their land and autonomy. Some tribes became nearly landless and others were fearful. For Māori land was not just an an economic resource but the basis of their identity and a connection with their ancestors. Land was held communally and was not given up lightly. Pākehā did not understand this and accused Māori of holding onto land they did not use properly.

This competition for land was the primary cause of the New Zealand Land Wars in the 1860s and 1870s, where the Taranaki and Waikato regions were invaded by colonial troops. The Māori lost much of their land leaving a legacy of bitterness.

[edit] The Royal Navy

Although the Royal New Zealand Navy was formally constituted in 1941, its development can be traced back for more than a century, and falls into four separate phases. In the first, which began even before the Treaty of Waitangi of February 1840 and continued for 47 years after it, New Zealand's naval defence consisted of occasional visits by ships of the Royal Navy based on New South Wales. There was no base in New Zealand. In 1887 the second phase began. In answer to requests from New Zealand for more protection owing to growing French and German interests in the Pacific, Britain agreed to maintain seven additional ships in Australasian waters, and Australia and New Zealand agreed to make an annual contribution toward their cost. New Zealand's share was initially 20,000 a year. This increased to 40,000 in 1903, and in 1908 was voluntarily set at 100,000 a year for a period of 10 years.

The Royal Navy in the New Zealand Wars 1845-46 The role of the ships of the Royal Navy during the New Zealand Wars was to sustain the British forces ashore, to transport military units around the coasts, and to provide fire support during engagements, either directly with gunfire from the ships or by landing sailors and guns to join the military forces ashore. During the first period of conflict 1845-46, six Royal Navy warships were involved. They provided landing parties of Marines and sailors at Ruapekapeka, Kororareka and Whanganui; transported troops, and the Governor, and in the case of HMS CALLIOPE, supplied a crew and the weapons to fit out a long boat for action on Porirua Inlet. This long boat incidentally was the first ship purchased by the New Zealand Government for combat duties, and was subsequently used on the Whanganui River in 1846. ^[5]

The New Zealand Wars 1860-1866 The second period of the New Zealand Wars lasted from 1860-1866. This time over a dozen British warships came to New Zealand waters during the conflict. Naval brigades, comprising Marines and sailors landed from the warships, and played an important part during the campaigns. Able Seaman Odgers won the Victoria Cross during the naval brigade's assault on Waireka Pa, Taranaki. The Waikato campaign of 1863-66 created the need for armed and protected vessels on the Waikato River. Some coastal trading vessels were purchased by the New Zealand government and refitted for the campaign. In addition, three gunboats were specially designed and built in Sydney. They were all shallow draught stern paddle-wheelers and were manned by a mixture of personnel from the Royal Navy, the Waikato Regiments and some civilians. After the cessation of hostilities they were all sold. The Auckland and Onehunga Naval Volunteer units saw active service in the Waikato during 1863 and 1864. In 1863, the Commodore of the Australia Station sailed for Auckland to consult with the Governor, in the new steam corvette HMS ORPHEUS. On 7 February ORPHEUS attempted to enter Manukau Harbour but a navigation error caused the ship to go aground on the bar. Heavy swells forced the ship to broach, and over the course of the day it began to break up. The sailors gathered in the rigging hoping for rescue, but as night fell the masts toppled and many were drowned. All told, 189 men were lost that day; it remains New Zealand's worst shipwreck. The following year, other tribes decided to support the Maori King movement. The warriors gathered at Tauranga, so the Navy swiftly moved soldiers to the area. In addition, a naval brigade and artillery were landed, comprising over 400 sailors and Royal Marines from four warships. Captain Hamilton RN, commanding officer of HMS ESK, commanded the naval brigade. Commander Hay RN of HMS HARRIER led the first assault on 29 April, but was wounded; Coxswain Mitchell carried him from the pa, earning the Victoria Cross. Captain Hamilton brought the reserve force in support, and was killed (the city of Hamilton is named after him). The battle of Gate Pa was a tactical victory for the Maori, but that night they evacuated the fortification and five days later were defeated at Te Ranga. ^[6]

In the quarter century from 1845 some twenty Royal Navy ships took part in actions between Māori and Pākehā, with the colonial government taking up some commercial ships in supporting roles. Another contribution came on loan from Australia, in the form of the Victorian naval screw steam corvette (one source says sloop) Victoria, in the first Taranaki conflict of 1860-61. They and the East Indiaman Elphinstone provided gun and crew, to form militia units for fighting ashore. The ships served mainly as communication, transport and supply links between places of conflict but, more importantly perhaps, also served as real symbols of British authority in areas where conflict was close to breaking out, or already had.

Name	Type	Armament	Built	Notes
Calliope	6th rate frigate	28 guns	1837
Castor	5th rate frigate	36 guns	1832
Driver	paddle sloop	12 guns	1840	First steam powered ship in NZ waters
Hazard	sloop	18 guns	1837
North Star	6th rate frigate	28 guns	1824
Racehorse	sloop	18 guns	1830

Name	Type	Armament	Built	Notes
Cordelia	screw sloop	30 guns	1856
Curacoa	screw frigate	31 guns	1854
Eclipse	screw sloop	4 guns	1860
Esk	screw corvette	21 guns	1860	Sold 1903
Falcon	screw sloop	17 guns	1854	Sold 1920
Harrier	screw sloop	17 guns	1854
Miranda	screw corvette	14 guns	1851
Niger	screw sloop	14 guns	1846
Pelorus	screw corvette	10 guns	1857	Pelorous or Pelorus? earlier boat [Pelorus=> In 1837 she was sent to western Australia and Van Diemen's Land, and in August to New Zealand to conduct a survey of the Marlborough Sound region..... During 1838-39, the HMS Pelorus sailed throughout the Australia-New Zealand area in order to explore, protect the British settlements, tour whaling stations and subdue the native populations..... "In 1838 H M Brig of War Pelorus visited different parts of Cook Strait and did great service by rendering justice to the injured party in many cases where complaint was made to the Commander. After a display of gunnery close to the Pa at Ships Cove the Commander demanded and obtained restitution of many articles stolen over a long period from the whalers."... etc * HMS Pelorus (1808) * disambig
HMVS Victoria	steam sloop	8 guns	1855

In those days roads were few and poorly formed, and the sea with all its hazards was the only practical means of communication. Royal Navy ships and their well trained and disciplined crews were the mainstay of battles and skirmishes fought in those troubled years, and their contribution to NZ's early settlement was substantial indeed. The navy role was a primary one.^[7]

The Royal Navy in the New Zealand Wars 1845-46 The role of the ships of the Royal Navy during the New Zealand Wars was to sustain the British forces ashore, to transport military units around the coasts, and to provide fire support during engagements, either directly with gunfire from the ships or by landing sailors and guns to join the military forces ashore. During the first period of conflict 1845-46, six Royal Navy warships were involved. They provided landing parties of Marines and sailors at Ruapekapeka, Kororareka and Whanganui; transported troops, and the Governor, and in the case of HMS Calliope, supplied a crew and the weapons to fit out a long boat for action on Porirua Inlet. This long boat incidentally was the first ship purchased by the New Zealand Government for combat duties, and was subsequently used on the Whanganui River in 1846.^[8]

[edit] The first gunboat

In 1846 a ship's longboat was purchased for £100 17s 11d, specifically for use as a gunboat in Porirua Harbour. This modest acquisition was the first boat purchased by a governing authority in New Zealand for use as a vessel of war.^[9]The Colonial Records of Revenue and Expenditure in 1846 list the purchase of a gunboat for Porirua Harbour for 100 pounds 17 shillings and 6 pence.^[10]

Although purchased by New Zealand it was crewed by the British Navy. This gunboat was a copper-plated longboat a little under 10 metres long that could be sailed or rowed and was armed with a 12-pounder carronade (short cannon) and a small brass cannon. The crew added their own hammocks and bedding as extra protection against musket shots.

Now, on the 17th of July, utilising the longboat from the barque Tyne which had been converted into a gunboat, (complete with oars and sail), and carrying a 12-pounder carronade which had been mounted into the bows, and also equipped with a small brass gun lent by Captain Stanley of the Calliope frigate, it was time for McKillop to make his mark on this war

The longboat had been recovered from the wreck of the barque Tyne, near Sinclair Head, Wellington on 4 July 1845. No name for the boat is mentioned in any sources. Carpenters from HMS Calliope converted her into a gunboat. She was lengthened, fitted with a 12 pdr carronade at the bow, and equipped also with a small brass gun as protection against musket shot.^[11]

The Calliope took the boat to Porirua in July, 1846. The gunboat was used for some time at Porirua on patrol duty, manned mainly by crew from the Calliope. In December it was transferred to Wanganui, again aboard Calliope. At Wanganui a young crew member accidentally wounded a Maori chief with a pistol.^[12] The Maori wanted the surrender of the youth, which was refused, and this was the direct cause of the Gilfillan murders. The gunboat saw more action there until, damaged by its own gun recoil, it was disarmed in late 1847.^[11][13]

[edit] Australia helps

In March 1860 the First Taranaki War started and the colonial government requested help from Australia. In June 1860, the flagship of the Australian Squadron, HMS Pelorus participated in the attack on Puketakauere pa during the First Taranaki War. Later that year, the crew landed at Kairau to support British troops under attack from Maoris and in January 1861 a gun crew from the ship helped defend the British redoubt at Huirangi against the Maoris ^[14].

In 1856 Victoria received its own Naval Vessel, the HMCSS Victoria. In 1861 Victoria was also deployed to assist the New Zealand colonial government. When Victoria returned to Australia the vessel had suffered one fatality and taken part in several minor actions.

[edit] The Waikato Flotilla

The following tables cover the ships (seagoing and river gunboats) which were purchased, requisitioned or purpose built for the New Zealand Colonial Government (HM the Queen for those registered), for duties connected with the land wars in the Waikato, Bay of Plenty and Taranaki, during the decade from 1860.

In addition, the Royal Navy operated HMS Curacoa, Esk, Fawn and Miranda out of Auckland, plus Eclipse and Harrier on the Manukau. This maintained a Royal Navy presence in these regions during the 1863-64 Waikato conflict, both as warships and in providing personnel for the fighting on land (the Naval Brigade) and for operating the Waikato flotilla.

Though there was no official New Zealand navy the ships were run as a naval force and transport service, and in that sense constitute the first New Zealand navy. However the flotilla was largely manned by Royal Navy personnel.

The Pioneer, Koheroa, Moutoa and Rangiriri were purpose-built for the New Zealand Government. The Pioneer was the first to be built in 1863 and was probably New Zealand's first purpose built warship. ^[15]

On the outbreak of hostilities in the Taranaki Province in 1860 the Government advertised for two vessels suitable for gunboat service. In April the schooner” Ruby,” 24 tons, recently launched from a shipbuilder's yard, was purchased by the Defence authorities, renamed” Caroline” (Plate IV, fig. 2), and armed with a 32-pounder gun, and a supply of ammunition from H.M.S. “Elk.” The cost of the schooner was £630; the cost of stores, fittings, and the cannon, £300. ^[11]

^[11]

An urgent call for help had been sent to Australia, and in reply the Government of Victoria had lent its warship, the steam-sloop “Victoria,” Captain Norman, which arrived at New Plymouth on the 3rd August, 1860, bringing Major-General Pratt, C.B., Commander of the Forces in Australia, and his staff. General Pratt took command of the troops in Taranaki until the arrival of Lieut.-General Cameron in May, 1861, when he returned to Australia in the “Victoria.” ^[11]

In 1862 the Government purchased the paddle-steamer “Avon” for £2,000. This steamer, which was 60 ft. in length, 14 horse-power, 27 tons register, and drawing 3 ft. of water, had been brought from England in sections and put together at Lyttelton in 1861. Fitted with 12-pounder Armstrong gun and a 12-pounder rocket-tube.

While the “Avon” was being fitted at Onehunga four large barges were brought overland from Auckland. These were also armoured with an iron-plate covering, and pierced for rifles and sweeps, or oars.

In June, 1863, a small paddle-steamer, the “Tasmanian Maid,” 53 tons register, 36 horse-power, was purchased by the Government for £4,000. She was renamed “Sandfly,” and armoured, being also armed with two 12-pounder Armstrong guns. The “Sandfly” was stationed on the east coast of the North Island, her headquarters being Auckland. She took part in the blockade of the Firth of Thames and the Tauranga campaign. She captured on the 31st October the cutter “Eclair,” a vessel of about 20 tons, owned by the Maori, and loaded with provisions. ^[11]

The paddle-steamer “Lady Barkly,” which had been purchased by the Government and partially plated, and used for transport work in and from the Manukau Harbour. The “Lady Barkly” is still (1920) running on the coast as a screw-steamer under the name “Hina.”

In 1863 the Imperial Commissariat Department purchased the 80-horsepower steamer “Alexandra” for transport work. She cost £13,000, and was also wrecked somewhere near New Plymouth, 9th August, 1865.

In a memorandum dated 20th October, 1863, the Minister of Defence stated, “Towards the end of 1862 the Government determined to place a small steamer on the Waikato, and after some inquiry the ‘Avon’ was purchased for the purpose. Her draught of water is too great to be available as is desirable; but, notwithstanding this disadvantage, the vessel has been of great service.^[11]

The importance of having a suitable steamer for the navigation of the Waikato determined the Government to have such a vessel constructed in Sydney, and after many delays and much anxiety the gunboat ‘Pioneer’ (Plate VI, fig. 1) has been obtained—a vessel, it is believed, well adapted for the purpose.” The “Pioneer” was launched from the shipyard of the Australian Steam Navigation Company, Pyrmont, Sydney, on the 16th July, 1863, having been under construction for a period of about seventeen weeks She is intended to carry 300 men, on a light draft of water. Her dimensions are 140 ft. in length, 20 ft. beam, 8 ft. 6 in. depth of hold, and draws only 2 ft. 6 in. of water. She will be propelled by an overhanging stern wheel, 12 ft. diameter, 7 ft. broad, driven by two engines, each 30 horse-power. She is constructed of ⅜ in. iron, which is pierced for rifles, and which will render her ball-proof. She is fitted with watertight compartments. The boilers were placed 54 ft. forward of the engines for the purpose of keeping the vessel on an even keel.” She is fitted with two sliding keels—one forward, one aft. The officers' cabins are situated aft, and the soldiers' apartments forward; they are very large and lofty. She has a flush deck, on which are placed two cupolas, 12 ft. in diameter and 8 ft. high, each pierced for rifles and 24-pounder howitzers. The commander's station was in a turret above the engine-room, which was also shot-proof and placed aft.” She was provided with space for the storage of 20 tons of coal, and it is interesting to note that while on the Waikato she used local coal, being the first steamer to do so. The cost of construction was £9,500.

After shipping a supply of ammunition, consisting of 60 cases shot and shell, 600 cartridges for 24-pounders, 1,000 tubes, 10,000 Terry's rifle cartridges, 12,000 caps, and 18,000 revolver-cartridges, the “Pioneer,” in tow of H.M.S. “Eclipse,” left Sydney on the 22nd September, reaching Onehunga on the 3rd October, after a rough trip. On the 24th October the “Pioneer,” with two companies of seamen from H.M.S. “Curaçoa,” was towed by H.M.S. “Eclipse” to the Waikato.

At the same time the four armoured barges, or gunboats, were also taken to the river. While on active service each of the gunboats was in charge of an officer from H.M.S. “Curaçoa.” I am informed by Admiral Hammick (then a sublieutenant), who was in charge of one, which was named the “Ant,” that one was commanded by Midshipman C. S. Hunt, who had been saved from H.M.S. “Orpheus” when that vessel was wrecked on the Manukau bar; another was in charge of Midshipman F. Hudson. The fourth, which was named the “Midge,” was commanded by Midshipman Foljambe. Mr. Foljambe in his Three Years on the Australian Station (1868) tells us that the boat was armed with a 12-pounder gun and a 4.4 in. brass Cohorn mortar, and carried a complement of seven men. These boats were used in the different operations on the Waikato and its branches, and also in carrying stores.

On the 20th November General Cameron, with a force of 860 men, attacked Rangiriri. To assist in the operations an additional 300 men of the 40th Regiment were embarked on the steamers, to be landed at a selected point, so that they might make an attack on the rear of the main line of the Maori entrenchments while the main body attacked in front. Owing to the wind and current the “Pioneer” and “Avon,” with two of the gunboats, were not able to reach the landing-place decided upon. After a preliminary barrage by the Royal Artillery 12-pounders, under Captain Mercer, and the naval 6-pounder, under Lieutenant Alexander (“Curaçoa”), the main body attacked the main line of entrenchments and drove the enemy to the centre redoubt, while the party of the 40th Regiment, who had been landed sufficiently near to reach their position, were able to pour a heavy fire on a body of Maori, who were driven from their position and fled towards the Waikare Lake, where a number of them were drowned. The centre redoubt, still holding out against the troops, was attacked by a party of thirty-six men of the Royal Artillery, under Captain Mercer, who was mortally wounded, then by a party of ninety seamen under Commander Mayne, who was wounded. Both attempts were unsuccessful, as was another by a party of seamen under Commander Phillimore (“Curaçoa”), who used hand-grenades. As it was now nearly dark, the General decided to wait until daylight, when it was found that the white flag had been hoisted, and 183 Maori surrendered. Midshipman Watkins (“Curaçoa”) and five men of the Naval Brigade were killed; while, in addition to Commander Mayne, Lieutenants Downs (“Miranda”) and Hotham (“Curaçoa”) (afterwards Admiral Sir C. F. Hotham) and five men were wounded. In a letter from Ngaruawahia dated the 4th December Wiremu Tamehana (William Thompson), the Maori leader, said that he had lost all his guns and powder. “It is your side alone which is still in arms—that is to say, the steamer which is at work in the Waikato, making pas as it goes on; when they finish one, they come a little farther and make another. Now, then, let the steamer stay away; do not let it come hither. That is all.” But, as the Maori king's flag had been hoisted at Ngaruawahia in the first place, it was decided that the Queen's flag should fly there. On the 2nd December General Cameron moved on from Rangiriri. As the outlets from Lake Waikare were not fordable, the troops, with their tents and baggage, were conveyed up the river in boats manned by seamen of the Royal Navy, under Commander Phillimore. The following day the troops again moved on, and encamped abreast of the island of Taipori. Here General Cameron was delayed, waiting for provisions, until the 7th, when he moved the camp about five miles farther up the river, and met the “Pioneer,” which had safely passed the last shoal below Ngaruawahia. Next day he went with Commodore Wiseman in the “Pioneer” to Ngaruawahia, which he found to be deserted. He immediately returned to the camp, and, after embarking 500 men of the 40th and 60th Regiments, again proceeded up the river, and landed at Ngaruawahia, where he established headquarters. On the 26th December 300 men of the 50th Regiment left Onehunga on the transport “Alexandra” and the chartered steamer “Kangaroo” for Raglan. On the 28th, 250 men of the Waikato Militia, under Colonel Haultain, embarked on the steamer “Lady Barkly” for the same destination. The memorandum of the Defence Minister, dated the 20th October, 1863, stated, “But so strongly has the necessity been felt for providing means for commanding the navigation of this important artery of the country, and for preparing means of communication with the military settlers to be located in the Waikato country, and of transporting the necessary supplies, that two smaller steamboats of very light draft of water have been ordered to be constructed in Sydney. These vessels are being constructed of iron. They will be brought from Sydney in sections, on board a vessel laden with coal, direct to the Waikato River, and put together at the Waikato Heads. These two boats are also specially designed of great power, so as to be used as tugs, and thus provide means of transporting supplies up the river.” These two boats were named “Koheroa” and “Rangiriri,” probably after the two actions fought on the Waikato. (Plate VI, fig. 2.) The builders were Messrs. p. Russell and Co. A Sydney newspaper, in describing one of the boats, said, “This boat, which can easily turn in the space of a little more than her own length, may follow the bendings of such a river as the Waikato in its narrowest part, and may either be used as a steam-tug, towing flats for the conveyance of troops, or may be armed with a gun at each of the singular-looking portholes, which are closed with folding doors, in the middle of the lower deck; while the bulwarks on each side are pierced with twenty or thirty loopholes for rifle shooting.” The “Koheroa” was built in less than six weeks from the time the contract was received from Mr. James Stewart, C.E., who had been sent to Sydney by the New Zealand Government to superintend the construction. The sections of the “Koheroa” were brought from Sydney to Port Waikato by the steamer “Beautiful Star.” The first bolt was riveted on the 4th January, 1864, and the vessel was launched on the 15th. I can find no record of these boats being engaged in hostilities, but they were used for transport work for some time. By the end of January, 1864, General Cameron's headquarters had been moved to Te Rore, on the River Waipa, from which, on the 20th February, with a force that included a naval detachment of 149 men and ten officers, he moved across the Mangapiko River to Te Awamutu, where headquarters were established. During the last few days of this campaign (February, 1864), while the “Avon” was patrolling the river, a shot reached the vessel and killed Lieutenant Mitchell, H.M.S. “Esk.” From Ngaruawahia Commodore Wiseman and a party of naval and military officers went up the Horotiu River a distance of twelve miles, then transferred to the “Koheroa,” and, proceeding twenty-two miles farther on (to near the site of the present town of Cambridge), located the Maori position, and returned. This incident ends the story of the British Navy on the Waikato River, though the steamers were used for some time longer on transport duty. Colonial crews were placed on board, and the Naval Brigade's operations were transferred to the Tauranga district. General Cameron transferred his headquarters to Tauranga on the 21st April, 1864. Reinforcements, which had been sent from Auckland onH.M.S. “Harrier” and “Esk,” arrived at Tauranga on the 26th April. On the morning of the 27th the Maori had fired heavily on Fort Colville, but they were shelled out of their position by H.M.S. “Falcon” and the colonial gunboat “Sandfly.” Captain Jenkins (“Miranda”) took charge of the “Sandfly,” which with the “Falcon” pursued the Maori who were retreating along the beach. Two 12-pounder Armstrong guns had been placed aboard the “Sandfly”; one, from the “Falcon,” was manned by “Miranda” men, and the other, from the “Esk,” was manned by men from that ship. Both ships shelled the whares at Otamarakau. At 3 p.m. firing ceased, as the enemy had finally disappeared. Captain Hannibal Marks, of the “Sandfly,” and Senior Lieutenant Hope, in command of the “Falcon,” were mentioned in despatches for “zeal and exertion.” The gunners from the “Miranda” and “Esk” were mentioned for the “extraordinary precision of their fire from the 12-pounder Armstrongs.” On the 29th April General Cameron made the attack on Gate Pa, with a force of 1,700 of all ranks, including a Naval Brigade of four field officers, six captains, seven subalterns, thirty-six sergeants, five drummers, 371 rank and file. One hundred and fifty seamen and marines under Commander Hay (“Harrier”), and an equal number of the 43rd Regiment under Lieut.-Colonel Booth, formed the assaulting party. Commander Hay and Lieut.-Colonel Booth fell mortally wounded. Captain Hamilton (“Esk”) was killed. The casualties of the Naval Brigade were: Killed or mortally wounded: “Curaçoa”—Lieutenant Hill and one man; “Miranda”—one man; “Esk”—Captain Hamilton and three men; “Harrier”—Commander Hay and three men; “Eclipse”—one man. Wounded: “Curaçoa”—five men; “Miranda”—Lieutenant Hammick and eight men; “Esk”—Lieutenant Duff and ten men; “Harrier”—four men. Total dead, 12; wounded, 29. Most of the wounded cases were classed as “severe” or “very severe.” For bravery in carrying Commander Hay, when wounded, off the field, Samuel Mitchell, captain of foretop, and captain's coxswain, was awarded the Victoria Cross, which was presented to him by Sir J. Young, Governor of New South Wales, in Sydney in October. On the 21st June Colonel Greer, commanding the Tauranga district, attacked the enemy at Te Ranga, and while this attack was being made a naval force from the “Esk” and the “Harrier” was landed for the protection of the camp. Lieutenant Hotham was mentioned in despatches. Lieut.-General Sir D. A. Cameron left Auckland in January, 1865, for Wanganui on H.M.S. “Falcon,” calling at New Plymouth en route. He arrived at Wanganui on the 20th January, and on the 5th February moved camp to Waitotara, one and a half miles from the mouth of the river. The paddle-steamer “Gundagai” entered the river during the evening, bringing provisions for several days. On the 16th February General Cameron marched to the Patea River, which had been entered by the “Gundagai” and “Sandfly” the day before. The General stated in his report, “They crossed under the most favourable circumstances; but as the latter [“Sandfly”] had not more than a foot to spare at high water, it will not be prudent to bring her into the river again.” This covers, as far as I can discover, the operations of our first naval adventures. The vessels seem to have done good work, and all that was expected of them. It is to be hoped that the “Calliope's” gunboat, the schooner “Caroline,” the paddle-steamers “Avon” and “Sandfly,” and the river-steamers “Pioneer,” “Koheroa,” and “Rangiriri,” and the men of the British Navy who manned them, will not be forgotten in our histories.^[11]

[edit] Notes