Endemic warfare

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Endemic warfare is the state of continual, low-threshold warfare in a tribal warrior society.^{[citation needed]} Endemic warfare is often highly ritualized and plays an important function in assisting the formation of a social structure among the tribes' men by proving themselves in battle.^{[citation needed]} Typical activities associated with endemic warfare are cattle raids and abduction of women.^{[citation needed]}

Human tendencies to compete^{[citation needed]} and social demands for group and individual survival may conflict. Many societies possess a compromise: ritual fighting.^{[citation needed]} Ritual fighting (or ritual battle or ritual warfare) permits the display of courage, masculinity and the expression of emotion while resulting in relatively few wounds and even fewer deaths. Thus one can view the practice as a standard form of conflict-resolution and/or as a healthy psycho-social exercise. Native Americans often engaged in this activity but warfare occurs or occurred much more rarely in most other hunter-gatherer cultures^[1]. In more formalised social environments representative champions — not necessarily leaders themselves — may represent a party and engage in ritual single combat^{[citation needed]} after the manner of David and Goliath^{[citation needed]}.

Warfare is known to several tribal societies, but some societies develop a particular emphasis of warrior culture (such as the Nuer of Sudan, the Māori of New Zealand, the Dugum Dani of New Guinea, the Yanomamö (dubbed "the Fierce People") of the Amazonas, or the Germanic tribes of Iron Age Europe).^{[citation needed]}

Endemic warfare is not equivalent to "primitive warfare" in general, but is reserved for perpetual low-threshold conflicts. Communal societies are well capable of escalation to all-out wars of annihilation between tribes. Thus, in the Amazonas, there was perpetual animosity between the neighboring tribes of the Jivaro. A fundamental difference between wars enacted within the same tribe and against neighboring tribes is such that "wars between different tribes are in principle wars of extermination" ^[2].

The Yanomamö of the Amazonas traditionally practiced a system of escalation of violence in several discrete stages.^{[citation needed]} The chest-pounding duel, the side-slapping duel, the club fight, and the spear-throwing fight. Further escalation results in raiding parties with the purpose of killing at least one member of the hostile faction. Finally, the highest stage of escalation is Nomohoni or all-out massacres brought about by treachery.

Similar customs were known Dugum Dani and the Chimbu of New Guinea, the Nuer of Sudan and the North American Plains Indians. Among the Chimbu and the Dugum Dani, pig theft was the most common cause of conflict, even more frequent than abduction of women, while among the Yanomamö, the most frequent initial cause of warfare were accusations of sorcery. Warfare serves the function of easing intra-group tensions and has aspects of a game, or "overenthusiastic football" ^[3]. Especially Dugum Dani "battles" have a conspicuous element of play, with one documented instance of a battle interrupted when both sides were distracted by throwing stones at a passing cockoo dove ^[4]

[edit] References

^ The Absence of War. open Democracy (2003-05-21). Retrieved on 2008-05-25.
^ Karsten, Rafael (1923). Blood revenge, war, and victory feasts among the Jibaro Indians of eastern Ecuador. Kessinger Publishing, 277. ISBN 9781417931811.
^ Orme, Bryony (1981). Anthropology for Archaeologits. Cornell University Presss, 196. ISBN 9780801413988.
^ Heider, Karl (1970). The Dugum Dani. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 111. ISBN 9780202010397.

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Chagnon, N. The Yanomamo, Holt, Rinehart & Winston,1983.
Keeley, Lawrence. War Before Civilization, Oxford University Press, 1996.
Pauketat, Timothy. North American Archaeology 2005. Blackwell Publishing.
Wade, Nicholas. Before the Dawn, Penguin: New York 2006.
S. A. LeBlanc, Prehistoric Warfare in the American Southwest, University of Utah Press (1999).
Guy Halsall, 'Anthropology and the Study of Pre-Conquest Warfare and Society: The Ritual War in Anglo-Saxon England' in *Hawkes (ed.), Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-Saxon England (1989), 155-177.