Dark Ages in history

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See also: Fall of a civilization

For a discussion of the Dark Age concept in European History, go to Western European Dark Ages.

A Dark Age is a name, drawn from Western European historiography, to apply to the period of the collapse of a civilization. In Britain, the term Dark Ages is often used by professionals, with severe qualification, as a term of periodization in the course of history. This usage is intended as non-judgmental and simply means the relative lack of written record, "silent" as much as "dark."

In every case study of a Dark Age (e.g., the "Dark Age" of Akkad^[1][2] and the first Intermediary period of Ancient Egypt^[3], the Dark Age accompanying the fall of the Indus civilization, the Dark Age of the Late Bronze Age collapse in 1200 BCE^[4], and the Dark Age from the fall of Rome (476 CE) until the Carolignian renaissance (800 CE), the Mayan Dark Age, the Toltec collapse), we see the same characteristics of "darkness".

There is much disagreement about the nature of the "darkness". Some argue that Dark Ages are just due to the paucity of historical documentation for certain periods. Indeed, records made during these periods can be extremely scarce. For instance, between the writings of Gildas and Bede, there is not a single historical record from Britain. We have no idea about what really happened during these years. Claims that we know more about the Roman period in Britain than we do about the Arthurian or Early Saxon period are a measure of just how dark this period really was. Materially the culture of those times was lower than in pre-Roman Britain. In most "Dark Ages" the previous civilization collapses, and in many cases the collapse is drastic, especially as seen by the people involved. For example, during the fifth and sixth centuries, the population of the city of Rome fell from 800,000 to only 30,000.

Symptoms of a Dark Age include:

1. Rise in mortality rates and falling fertility
2. Collapse of centralized forms of government
3. Abandonment of rule by codified law
4. Disappearance of monumental architecture
5. Reduced literacy, and loss of knowledge
6. Smaller settlement size
7. Simplification of representational art
8. Abandonment of earlier religious forms
9. Increase in intra-group violence
10. Reduced inter-regional trade

Recently it has been found that Dark Ages are accompanied by sudden regional climate changes, generally leading to depressed agricultural yields, decreased rainfall, increased aridity, increased and uncertain seasonal variation, and increased soil erosion^[5].

Contents 1 Examples of Dark Ages 1.1 Akkadian Empire 1.2 Mycenaean collapse 2 References

[edit] Examples of Dark Ages

[edit] Akkadian Empire

See also: Akkad

A classic case of such a Dark Age is shown in the case of the Empire of Akkad

Within 100 years of its peak the Empire of Akkad collapsed, almost as fast as it had developed. By the end of Naram-Sin's son, Shar-kali-shari's reign, it collapsed outright from the invasion of barbarians of the Zagros known as "Gutians". It has recently been suggested ^[6] that the Dark Age at the end of the Akkadian period (and First Intermediary Period of the Ancient Egyptian Old Kingdom) was associated with rapidly increasing aridity, and falling rainfall in the region of the Ancient Near East, possibly produced by an asteroid impact or major volcanic eruption.

The fall of the empire established by Sargon seems to have been as sudden as its rise, and little is known about the Gutian period. From the fall of Akkad until around 2100 BC, there is much that is still dark. The Sumerian king list after the death of Shar-Kali-Sharri, states

"Who was king? Who was not king? Igigi the king; Nanum, the king; Imi the king; Elulu, the king - the four of them were kings but reigned only three years. Dudu reigned 21 years; Shudurul, the son of Dudu, reigned 15 years. (A Total of) 11 kings reigned 197 years. Agade was defeated, and its kingship carried off to Uruk. In Uruk, Urnigin reigned 7 years, Irgigir, son of Urnigin, reigned 6 years; Kudda reigned 6 years; Puzur-ili reigned 5 years, Utu-utu reigned 6 years. Uruk was smitten with weapons and its kingship carried off by the Gutian hordes.

The Kings of Uruk may have been contemporaries of the last kings of Akkad).

In the Gutian hordes, (first reigned) a nameless king; (then) Imta reigned 3 years as king; Shulme reigned 6 years; Elulumesh reigned 6 years; Inimbakesh reigned 5 years; Igeshuash reigned 6 years; Iarlagab reigned 15 years; Ibate reigned 3 years; .... reigned 3 years; Kurum reigned 1 year; .... reigned 3 years; .... reigned 2 years; Iararum reigned 2 years; Ibranum reigned 1 year; Hablum reigned 2 years; Puzur-Sin son of Hablum reigned 7 years; Iarlaganda reigned 7 years; .... reigned 7 years; .... reigned 40 days. Total 21 kings reigned 91 years, 40 days.

Evidence from Tell Leilan in Northern Mesopotamia shows what may have happened. The site was abandoned soon after the city's massive walls were constructed, its temple rebuilt and its grain production reorganised. The debris, dust and sand that followed, show no trace of human activity. Soil samples show fine, wind-blown sand, no trace of earthworm activity and reduced rainfall, indications of a drier and windier climate. Evidence shows that skeleton thin sheep and cattle died of drought, and up to 28,000 people abandoned the site seeking wetter areas elsewhere. Tell Brak shrank in size by 75%. Trade collapsed. Nomadic herders moved herds closer to reliable water suppliers, bringing them into conflict with farmers. The ruler of Ur constructed an 180 kilometer wall called "the repeller of the Amorites". Increased wind erosion is also indicated by increased deposits in marine horizons off the coast of Oman, carbon dated to the period of the collapse of Akkad, reaching levels not seen in the last 10,000 years. The spread of arid conditions is also observed in northern Nigeria and the Ethiopian Highlands. This climatic collapse affected the whole of the Middle East and occurred at the time of the collapse of the Egyptian Old Kingdom. The collapse of wetter conditions in the Ethiopian Highlands may have had an effect on reducing the waters of the Nile, as at this time it was reported people spoke of being able to cross the Nile on foot. The climatic change at this period shows in Greenland ice cores, and as far away as cores from Andean glaciers in Peru, and probably lasted for nearly 280 years.

[edit] Mycenaean collapse

See also: Greek Dark Age

From the 13th to the 11th century BCE all Mycenaean citadels, with the possible exception of Athens, were destroyed or abandoned in a "Dark Age" collapse that in some areas, on the basis of an examination of changes in settlement pattern, was associated with a 90% decline in population. Reasons for the collapse have varied. Initially it was thought that the collapse was linked to the "Return of the Heraclidae" or the coming of the Dorians, although more recently the penetration of Dorian tribes into the Peloponnese has been dated to the year 1100 BCE, which is after the date of the collapse of the major Mycenaean citadels.

Later Greek myths suggest that the major collapses occurred one or two generations after the Trojan War. Linear B tablets, preserved in the fire that destroyed the palace of Pylos, show that the society was mobilising for war in the preceding weeks. Rowers were being placed along the coast, and temple bronze was being smelted into weapons. This suggests that the rulers were expecting a maritime attack. This is suggestive of the Peoples of the Sea, identified as being responsible for the Late Bronze Age collapse throughout the Middle East.

Whatever the cause of the collapse, archaeology shows that the period immediately preceding the collapse was associated with a repairing of defenses. In the Late Helladic III B2 period, for example the defenses of both Mycenae and Tiryns were repaired, and houses existing beyond the city walls were abandoned. Important sites in Boetia, for example Gla and Orchomenos were permanently abandoned.

Robert Drews^[7] suggests that the collapse was due to a major change in the organisation of warfare. The long Naue II sword suggests that an individual melee by a massed infantry was replacing the aristocratic chariot warfare of the Maryannu, which had dominated the Late Bronze Age. It has been suggested that Mycenaeans participated in the Sea Peoples attacks on Egypt at this time. The Ekwesh, found in Merenptah's Israel stele are thought by some to have been Achaeans. The soldiers vase also seems to show ranked spear-carrying infantrymen, with small round shields, armed with greaves and breast plates, and plumed helmets. The portrayals of the Peoples of the Sea attacks on Egypt, portrayed at Rameses III's temple at Medinet Habu also show armoured soldiers with round shields and long swords.

Whatever the result, Myceanean Late Helladic IIIC pottery was found throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, though it seems to have been conspicuously absent in Greece, where new Archaic styles were common. In Boetia the population reduction was 75%, in the Argolid 66% and in Messina by as much as 90%.

[edit] References