Chinese in Singapore
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The Chinese in Singapore are people of Chinese descent who are born in or immigrated to Singapore and have attained citizenship or permanent residence status. As of 2000, Chinese Singaporeans constitute 78% of Singapore's population, or approximately three out of four Singaporeans.
Chinese in Singapore today commonly recognize themselves as Singaporeans rather than Chinese.[citation needed] Some Chinese have married Peranakans, who are Chinese in ethnicity but somewhere in their ancestorial line, they had married ethnic Malays. They had thus developed a culture of their own comprising a mixture of Chinese and Malay culture.
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[edit] Dialect groups
The Chinese in Singapore are in majority Han Chinese with the exception of the Peranakans and very few chinese who were of Non-han ancestry such as Manchu. The Peranakans are classified as a separate ethnic group whose ancestry is not directly traceable to China. The Chinese forms 78% of the population in Singapore. They belong to several linguistic-cultural dialect groups, originating from mainly the southern parts of China. The Hokkien, Teochew and Hainanese, all of whom belong to the Min-nan group, jointly form more than three-quarters of the Chinese population. The Cantonese and Hakka account for most of the remainder.
Government policies targeted at narrowing dialect-culture and eradicating the subunit orientation differences within the Chinese community, was spearheaded by the Speak Mandarin campaign together with the banning of dialect-medium subjects in schools and the media, have resulted in an entire generation of young Singaporeans distanced from their respective mother tongues and therefore their respective culture and heritage.
[edit] Hokkien (Fujian)
The Hokkiens constitute around 41% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Most came from the southern parts of the Fujian province (福建省), primarily Xiamen (厦门), Zhangzhou (漳州) and Quanzhou (泉州). They speak Amoy Hokkien (厦门话 / 厦门闽南语), a Min-nan (闽南) dialect, which is 50.4% comprehensible with Teochew (潮州话), and less so with Hainanese(海南话). [1]
The Hokkien language has become a lingua franca amongst the various Chinese dialectal groups and is also used by other ethnic groups such as the Malays and Indians to communicate with Chinese.
Early Hokkiens migrants settled around Amoy Street and Telok Ayer Street, enclaving around the Thian Hock Kheng Temple and subsequent clan headquarters Hokkien Huey Kuan, later expanding to Hokkien St and the vicinity of China Street. Being most adventurous amongst the Chinese, the Hokkiens were the most active in early trading that centered along the Singapore River.
As the early settlers come from the southern coast of China, they tend to live off sea trades and worship one of the patron-deities of Taoist pantheon, the Heavenly Mother or "Ma Zhu" who supposedly look out for seafarers. Thian Hock Kheng Temple houses Goddess "Ma Zhu" (妈祖) and is thus also known as Ma Zhor Kheng. Another popular patron group of deities being the Nine Emperor Gods, a commemoration of the Emperors who brought peace and prosperity to the people. The common reverence of the supreme Taoist God, the Jade Emperor is also eminent amongst the Chinese Singaporeans and the bithday of the Jade Emperor on the 9th day of Chinese New Year is accorded utmost prominence.
An official Taoist practice by a Taoist spiritual medium known as "Tangki" (a phrase derived from Taiwan) is also popular amongst the Chinese. Basically, the spiritual medium goes into a spiritual trance and establishes a channel of communication between the mortal and the chosen Deity. It is said that the Taoist Deity transmogrified the spiritual medium and provides a wide range of help to devotees ranging from religious rituals to health, business, domestic queries and request like a talisman to protect their love ones.
[edit] Teochew (Chaozhou)
The Teochew (also spelt Teochiu) in Singapore constitute about 21% of the Chinese population in Singapore. Teochews originated from the Chaoshan region in Guangdong Province of China, namely Jieyang, Shantou, Chaozhou, Chaoyang, Puning, Chao'an, Raoping, Huilai, Chenghai and Nan'ao.
The Teochew people speak Teochew, also a Min-Nan dialect, which has an overall 50.4% mutual intelligibility as Hokkien. The Teochew people, like the Hainanese people, trace their ancestry to southern Fujian (闽南) just like the Hokkiens. Their migration from southern Fujian to their new homes in the Chaoshan region and Hainan Island respectively were mainly due to overpopulation and famine in the southern Fujian region. [2]. However, despite linguistic and cultural similarities, the Teochews and Hokkiens considered themselves distinct and did not get along well during their early settlement in Singapore, especially during the British colonial era. Like the Hokkiens, the Teochews similarly shared the Taoist belief of a Taoist spiritual medium.
The Teochews were the dominant Chinese dialect group for a period of time during the 19th century. Mass immigration of Chinese from Fujian later outnumbered the Teochews, especially in the south. The majority of the Chinese living along the banks of the Straits of Johor were largely Teochew until the HDB initiated mass redevelopment from the 1980s onwards.
However, the majority of the Teochew settled along the banks of Singapore River in Chinatown during the 19th and early 20th century. Teochews who settled in Chinatown professed in many commercial sectors as well as fishery. Traditional commercial sector Chinatown once dominated by Teochews include Circular Road and South Bridge Road.
Others, mainly businessmen, set up gambier and pepper plantations in the dense forests of Singapore, parts of northern Singapore as well as Johor Bahru. The Chinese first started their plantations with the approval of the Sultan of Johor from the nineteenth century onwards. This attracted more Teochew businessmen to start their plantations in those areas over the years. As such, the "Kangchu" system eventually started to form. The Chinese word "Kang" (江) means river, while "Chu" (厝) means house. However, in this context, "Chu" is the clan's name of the first headman in charge of the plantations in the area. The "Kangchus" gave rise to modern place names such as Choa Chu Kang, Lim Chu Kang and Yio Chu Kang, all of which were largely plantation areas prior to urban redevelopment.
Like many other dialect groups, early Chinese immigrants cluster themselves to form clan and dialect associations. These clan associations or Kongsi served as unions for the mostly illiterate Chinese laborers and their colonial ruler/employer. Subsequently there was a decamp from colonial bosses when the Kongsi conducted their own import/export, which in the colonialists' eyes was considered competition and thus labelled piracy. In order to safeguard their rice bowl, members of certain clans were sworn in with elaborate rites of passage which the colonialists termed as secret societies. Mostly, such associations were formed to look after the religious and welfare needs of Chinese immigrants in Singapore. One of the more prominent clan assosciation for the Teochew include Ngee Ann Kongsi, a Teochew-oriented association formed in 1845 has established itself since thence.
The Straits Times highlighted that Hougang has a relatively high concentration of Teochew residents.
[edit] Cantonese (Guangdong)
The Cantonese make up 15% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Unlike the Hokkien, Teochew and the Hainanese, the Cantonese speak a dialect belonging to the Yue family. The Cantonese community is also further sub-divided into several sub-dialect groups. Yue Hai is considered to be the purest form of Cantonese because of its close proximity with Guangzhou. Other variants include Luoguang, Seiyap and Gouyeung. The Gwainaam variant is largely based in Guangxi and shares close affinity with Pinghua. As with the Hokkiens and Teochews, the Cantonese equally shares the Taoist belief of a Taoist spiritual medium.
The Cantonese mainly worked as goldsmiths, tailors and restaurateurs during the early and mid 20th century, and their businesses predominated the shophouses along Temple Street, Pagoda Street, and Mosque Street. Cantonese women from the Samsui district (Chinese: 三水区; pinyin: Sānshǔi Qū), worked in construction sites, and contributed greatly towards the development of Singapore. These Samsui women were made famous by their bright red headgears.
These women, known as the Samsui women, left behind their families in China and came to Singapore to work in construction sites for a living during the early 20th century. They are noted for their distinctive navy blue outfits and bright red headgear, which were meant for protecting their hair as they worked. The headgear was first worn by Wang Chao Yun (王朝云 字子霞), a concubine of Su Dongpo, in the Hakka Fui Chiu district of Guangdong province and it eventually became the traditional headgear of Hakkas. Cantonese women who worked alongside female Hakka labourers adopted the use of the headgear. To the average person, Samsui women normally evokes the image of a woman clad in blue top and trousers and the invariable headgear.
Cantonese women from the Seiyap (Chinese: 四邑) district in Jiangmen prefecture wear black headgear similar to the Samsui women. Seiyap women who wear black headgear mainly work in shipyards at the old harbour along Singapore river as well as at Keppel Harbour.
[edit] Hakka (Kejia)
The Hakkas constitute 8% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Since their dialect was initially somewhat intelligible to Mandarin, although strongly influenced by Min-nan and Yue, they were believed to have migrated from Northern China between the 16th and the 17th century. Recent genetic studies, however, have shown that the Hakkas originate from Southern China, like the other Chinese dialect groups in Singapore.
Many Hakka women who came to Singapore during the early 20th century worked in construction sites and wore headgear similar to the Samsui women. However, unlike the Samsui women, those Hakka women wore black, rather than red headgear.
[edit] Hainanese and Northern Min
This group constitutes 5% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Of them, the majority are Hainanese, from Hainan, speaking Hainanese.
The others, who included the Hockchew (Fuzhou), Hockchia and the Hinghwas, who came from Northern Fujian and Southern Zhejiang. They speak various Northern Min dialects. As late-comers to Singapore (late 19th century), most of them worked as shop helpers, chefs, and waiters in the hospitality sector. Hainanese Chicken Rice is a famous dish.
[edit] Mandarin and Wu
Mandarin speakers from Beijing and other northern provinces, and Wu speakers from Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang, constitute only 2% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Most of them immigrated to Singapore much later than the other groups. They can all speak Standard Mandarin, the lingua franca among all the Chinese dialects, and may be able to speak their own dialects that are rarely used in daily life even amongst those from the same region.[citation needed]
These are mainly first and second-generation Chinese Singaporeans who came to Singapore in the 1990s. They tend to be highly paid white-collar workers in multinational corporations or academics in research and educational institutes. Also, there is an increasing number of Chinese teachers from the PRC working in Primary and Secondary schools and Junior Colleges in Singapore. This is because the Ministry of Education in Singapore finds it increasingly difficult to find qualified young Singaporeans to teach Standard Mandarin.
[edit] Taiwanese
This group constitutes less than 1% of the Chinese Singaporean or Permanent Resident population. In Singapore, due to their small population, they are often sub-categorized into Singapore's larger Chinese dialect groups such as Hokkien, Hakka or Mandarin. Nevertheless, the Taiwanese Singaporeans form a distinctive group on their own. Most of them speak Mandarin, Taiwanese Hokkien or Hakka depending on their respective family dialect.
According to accounts by elderlies in Singapore, many Chinese teachers teaching the Chinese language during the 1950s and 1960s in the schools of Singapore came from Taiwan. More immigration from Taiwan began during the 1970s and 1980s as more Taiwanese came to Singapore to invest, work, live or study. Most of them are highly-educated, and employed in professions such as engineering, business, investment and education.
[edit] Peranakan (Ethnic Group)
The Peranakan, also known as Baba-Nonya are early Chinese immigrants from Malacca, of which many of them later migrated to Singapore. As they contain mix blood of the Chinese and the Malays, the Peranakans are classified as a separate ethnic group from the Han Chinese in Singapore. They embrace a fusion of Malay and Chinese cultures while still maintaining their Chinese ethnicity. The men are known as Baba while the women are known as Bibiks or Nonyas. Peranakans in Singapore were once concentrated in the Geylang and Katong areas. This is because the Peranakans were often intermediaries for businesses and social groups during colonial Singapore owing to their ability to speak English, Malay and Hokkien.
Many Peranakans and Hokkien Chinese moved out of the congested town of Singapore - now the Central Business District (CBD) - and built seaside mansions and villas along the East Coast in Tanjong Katong ("Turtle Bay" in the Malay language) for their dynasties.
However, they have since dispersed off to other parts of Singapore after 1965. Peranakans in Singapore generally belong to the Hokkien and Teochew dialect groups and spoke Baba Malay and Chinese dialects as mother tongues. Many of them converted to Roman Catholicism during the 18th-century Portuguese colonisation into South-East Asia. Missionaries set up posts in Batavia (Indonesia), Malaya (Malaysia) of which Malacca, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore were parts of before the 1965 independent and separation movement of Singapore city from its Malayan hinterland.
The Peranakans were a transcultural mix of races that blended colonial English style with indigenous Malay languages and Hokkien Chinese customs.
[edit] Singlish/English
Although not officially classified as a 'Chinese group' in Singapore, there is a sizeable group of Chinese Singaporean who speak English or Singlish as a first language. They speak Singlish or English at home, and make it a point to immerse and educate their children in the English language. They are commonly known as "English-speaking Chinese Singaporean". Some of them even referred to themselves as "Ang Moh Pai 红毛派" (hokkien term that literally means "red-hair faction" or "Caucasian faction") or "English-Educated". The term "Ang Moh Pai" can however be interpreted differently when the term is used in derogatory way to refer to 'westernized banana' (a westernized chinese who is yellow on the outside and white on the inside).
Unlike the "English-educated" Chinese counterparts in Malaysia, most of the "English-speaking Chinese Singaporean" are able to speak, read and write in Chinese due to the mandatory requirement of Singapore's education to learn chinese in schools either as a 1st or 2nd language. Most of the "English-speaking Chinese Singapore" are generally stronger in the English language compared to their Chinese language.
The "English-speaking Chinese Singaporean" were generally born in Singapore and had grown up under two or more generations of family who have had english education. Because their parents and grandparents spoke English, they found it easier to speak English or Singlish. There is also quite a number who used to speak Chinese dialects at home, but later chose to speak English/Singlish after they got married. This had led to more chinese families speaking Singlish/English at home. Ever since Singapore adopted and standardized English as medium of instruction in all schools in the 1980s (i.e. english-based education became the norm), the number of chinese families speaking Singlish/English had increased.
The "English-speaking Chinese Singaporean" can sometimes be even categorized into different subgroups according to their cultural orientation such as "localised pai" (more influenced by Singapore local culture),"Chinese pai" (more influenced by Chinese culture), "westernized pai" (more influenced by Western or American culture) etc. Majority of English-speaking Chinese Singaporean found themselves to be within the "localised pai" (i.e. culturally, they are between east and west and they tend to associate themselves with the local Singaporean identity).
[edit] Religion
According the 2000 census, 42.5% of Singapore's Chinese population declared themselves to be Buddhist, 8.5% Taoist, 14.6% Christian and 14.8% non-religious. The Chinese form the vast majority in these four groups, due to their dominance in Singapore.
The majority of the Chinese in Singapore register themselves as Buddhist, and a smaller number claimed to be Taoist. Many Chinese have retained to a certain extent the Taoist belief and practice which is an age-old Chinese tradition. Taoism was once the dominant belief system, but younger generations have either switched to Buddhism or have become non-religious.
[edit] Taoism
Taoism is practiced by 8.5% of Singapore's population, which amounts to more than 200,000 individuals. As a backbone of Chinese culture, Taoism was once a popular belief held by many Chinese, but Taoist beliefs has witnessed a sharp decline from the 1990s onwards, as most of the younger-generation, Chinese Singaporeans perceive the religion as demoded and draconian.
Taoists in Singapore are generally polytheistic, and worship similar Deities. Many of these Deities are incarnated and thus ancestral and are subject to a complex Taoist hierarchy of veneration. The Chinese also worship some Deities of common origins, notably the Jade Emperor, the Northern Emperor or Xiong Tae Gong, Emperor Guan Yu or Guan Tae, and the Heavenly Empress or Matsu. Other Deities that were venerated and frequently taken as auspicious images include Prosperity (Hock in Teochew/Hokkien, Fok in Cantonese, Fu 福 in Mandarin), Wealth (Lock in Teochew/Hokkien, Luk in Cantonese, Lu 禄 in Mandarin), and Longevity (Siew in Teochew/Hokkien, Sao in Cantonese, Shou 寿 in Mandarin) (see Fu Lu Shou). This includes ancestral Gods such as Guan Yu. The God of Fortune is also venerated by many Chinese businessmen all over Singapore as well as Malaysia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and China. Minor Deities, especially ancestral, worshipped by different dialect groups may not share a common origin with other dialect groups.
The Hakka are an exception in this case. Unlike other Chinese dialect groups, some Deities worshipped by Hakka are not depicted in the form of statues. Usually a stone or tablet is used to represent the Deity instead, and this is particularly true side-temple Deities that are not placed in the main altar.
Adherents of Taoism would place house altars in their living room. This is more frequently seen among Chinese families, rather than individuals. The family God or Deity would be placed on the top altar, and a spiritual tablet would be placed at the bottom altar, although ancestral tablets are at times incorrectly placed at the top altar as well. Often, urns, usually placed with some joss sticks, are placed in front of the Deity. Oil lamps may also be placed at the sides, and fruit offerings are also placed in front of the Deity as offerings to the Deity.
A brazier, often painted red, may also be seen. They are meant for burning joss papers. They also hang a small altar, painted red, with the words "Heaven Bestows Wealth" (天宮賜福) painted on it outside the house or simply a small urn filled with ash where joss sticks are placed. The smoke emitted from burning joss sticks is believed to transmit their devotion and at times requests to the Gods in heaven.
Traditional Chinese funeral customs is largely Taoist, although nowadays Buddhist monks are often invited to initiate the rituals. Therefore, either Taoist priests or Buddhist monks are called in to chant mantras and prayers. Funerals are usually conducted under the void deck of an HDB flat, condominium, or within the living premises of the deceased's private house. Funeral rituals usually last three to five days. Due to land spatial constraints, families of deceased members would have the deceased cremated in crematoriums and temples inlieu of their custom of a burial.
Taoists in Singapore are influenced by Buddhism and vice versa. There is definitely a unique culture and practice that has developed locally that gave rise to the localized religious flavor in Singapore. Most who declared themselves as Buddhist are also often seen honoring and revering Taoist Gods and Deities; and most Taoists, on the other hand, are also ready to honor Lord Buddha. In fact, the demarcation between Buddhism and Taoism has obscurred and to adherents of either religion, Taoism and Buddhism are actually viewed as a single entity.
The afore-stated reason probably accounted for the steep decline in the number of adherents of Taoism, from 30% in 1980 to 22.4% in 1990, and then down to 8.5% in 2000 whilst Buddhism rise from 31.2% in 1990 to 42.5% in 2000. Proposition that economic affluence and changes in lifestyles have led younger-generation Chinese Singaporeans to embrace evangelical Christianity may well be overstated as the percentage rise in Christianity between 1990 (12.7%) to 2000 (14.6%) is merely less than 2%.
[edit] Buddhism
Buddhism is practiced by 42.5% of Singapore's population, or more than half of the Chinese in Singapore. The growth of Buddhism and Buddhist teachings in Singapore is not a recent development. Overseas missionaries from Taiwan, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Japan and to a lesser extent, Tibet, have introduced Theravada, Mahayana Buddhism and Vajrayana Buddhism to Singaporeans. The Buddhists in Singapore are not exclusively ethnic Chinese, they include Japanese expatriates, Europeans, Americans, and Eurasians who have converted from Christianity.
All the three mainstream Buddhist traditions, namely Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana are well represented in Singapore and they unanimously celebrate the festival Vesak. Vesak Day is a festive that commemorates the birth, Enlightenment and the Nirvana of Lord Buddha Gautama.
In recent decades, atop of the inherent Buddhist-Taoist culture, Buddhist missionaries from other parts of Asia have cause large number of converts throughout the region. Valued and learned writings translated into books are one of many factors responsible for the success of Buddhism. Other factors include Singaporeans' relations with Buddhist organizations overseas.
Buddhists in Singapore normally pay frequent visits to Temples for prayers, Dharma Centers of Monasteries for dharma activities like Dharma Talks or discussions, Meditation, Chanting as well as many other activities especially for the youth.
[edit] Christianity
Christianity is practiced by 14.6% of Singapore's population, the great majority of whom are ethnic Chinese. Most Christians in Singapore are either Roman Catholic or Protestant, with Orthodox Christians forming a minuscule minority.
Protestants in Singapore include Anglicans, Methodists, Presbyterians and Baptists. Non-sectarian Churches such as Pentecostals, Charismatics have made large numbers of converts in the recent years, notably among youths. However, Catholicism (Roman) still remains the largest denomination locally.
Ancestor worship is not permitted among Catholics, contrary to what many Protestants believe. However, dead ancestors are often prayed for during Mass and various prayer services. But this is considered taboo among Protestant denominations. However, the continuation of ancestor worship persists according to individuals, especially during the Cheng Meng festival.
Christian church services are mainly held in English, though some churches have services in different languages, notably Mandarin, Tamil, Tagalog and even in Chinese dialects. Latin services are occasionally conducted in Catholic churches.
The Christian population in Singapore grew from 10% in the 1980s to 18% in 1988 before taking a dip to 14.6% as recently.
[edit] Other
Another 13% of the Chinese Singaporean are non-religious adherents and they call themselves "free thinkers". In Singapore, this term simply means that the person does not adhere to any single religion. However, most perpetuate the Chinese traditions and practices.
A small minority of the Singapore Chinese follow either Islam or Hinduism. Most are converts who have married Malay Muslims or Indian Hindus. Some may be raised by Malays or Indians whilst some are simply a matter of personal choice.
[edit] History
There are records of the Chinese presence in Singapore as early as the 14th-century. Imperial Chinese sources state that there was a significant amount of Chinese inhabitants in the region. According to the Chinese explorer Wang Dayuan, the Chinese inhabitants of Singapore were dressed in local traditional costume and were largely intermarried with the local South-East Asian women, following an amalgam of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism. These were the earliest Peranakans of Singapore.
After Singapore became the capital of the British Straits Settlements in 1832, the free trade policy attracted many Chinese from mainland China to trade, and many settled down in Singapore. The large influx of Chinese to Singapore led to the establishment of a large number of Chinese associations, schools, and temples in Singapore and within a century, the Chinese immigrants exceeded the population of the Malays. During this period, Christian missionaries from Europe began to evangelize the Asians, especially the Chinese. By 1849, the Chinese formed half of Singapore's population.
[edit] During WWII
The Second Sino-Japanese War, started in 1937, revived a perceived sense of patriotism in the local Chinese to China and soon the Singaporean Chinese imposed an embargo against Japanese goods and products in Singapore. During the war, fearing for the safety of their relatives in China, some of the immigrants returned to China to fight the Japanese, while established entrepreneurs sent economic aid or military equipment to China. After the Japanese took Singapore in 1942, the Kempeitai tracked down many Chinese who aided the Chinese war effort against Japan. However, the Kempeitai's Sook Ching Operation was simply a massacre designed to drive fear into the local populace, so the Kempeitai simply picked out people based on accounts of masked informers, which in many cases are false accounts based on personal vendettas. There were also active anti-Japanese resistance during the war, such as Force 136, headed by Lim Bo Seng.
[edit] Racial tensions
Race riots were common during the early post-war period, predominantly the period between self-governance and independence in 1965. One major riot took place during birthday celebrations in honour of Muhammad, on 21 July 1964. There were records of high casualties (23 killed and 454 injured). There were claims that the riot was politically motivated to oust then Prime Minister (Lee Kuan Yew) and his cabinet, to prevent the ideology of a Malaysian Malaysia to spread north towards Peninsular Malaysia.
[edit] See also
- Overseas Chinese
- British Chinese
- Buddhism in Singapore
- Taoism in Singapore
- Singlish
- Malaysian Chinese
- Jook-sing
- List of common Chinese surnames in Singapore
- Chinese language romanisation in Singapore
[edit] References
- Statistics of adherents of different religions in Singapore
- http://weecheng.com/singapore/9eg/index.htm
- The Straits Times, April 28, 2006, pg 15, Prime section
- Profile of the Singapore Chinese Dialect Groups
[edit] External links
- Thai Theravada Buddhist Shop in Singapore
- The Peranakan Resource Library - A resource website for all things Peranakan
- The Online Peranakan Antiques Boutique - An online exclusive boutique to buy exquisite & rare Peranakan antiques
- Peranakan For Kids - A Peranakan educational site for both kids & teens
- Festival of the Nine Emperor Gods
- 2003 speech by Lee Hsien Loong on Teochews
- Spoken Cantonese in Singapore
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